THE NAVIGATORS Pathfinders Of The Pacific

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ハワイ島

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ハワイは人　タヒチの子

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ハワイは　1000年以上前に太平洋を渡った
タヒチ海洋民族の最終到達地

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1976年　一艘のカヌーがハワイを発った
伝説のタヒチ航海ルートを遡る旅だ

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カヌーを操るのは
航海術の最後の伝承者　マウ・ピアイルック

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「タヒチへの旅には重要な意味がありました」

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「タヒチ人もハワイ人も　はかつて私たちと同じように
　海を渡って暮らしていました」

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「太古の人々は機械ではなく
　星や波を利用して移動しました」

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「私は　彼らの先祖が持っていた技術が
　実現可能であることを示したかったのです」

10
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「私たちミクロネシア人は
　今でもそれができるのです」

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マウはミクロネシア人
ハワイから西に2000マイル

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小さな島々は　大洋に隔てられている

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人々は
マウのような航法師に頼って生活する

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「コースから外れるな
　潮流が強い」

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「島に向けてまっすぐに舵をとれ」

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サタワル島の航海士は
かつて太平洋全域に広がった海洋民族の末裔だ

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ナビゲーターズ（航法師たち）

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太平洋

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地球上のすべての大陸を合わせて余りある

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ヨーロッパ人がこの広大な海にやってきたときには

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１万を超える島のほぼすべてに
海洋民族が住んでいた

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西太平洋の最果ての島々では
航海の秘術が今も世代を超えて伝えられる

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サタワル島は小さなサンゴ礁で
面積１平方マイル　海抜わずか８フィート

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「あの雲を見ろよ」

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「あの雲は　２，３日前の嵐の雲だな」

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「海面に近い」

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マウ・ピアイルグは　父と祖父から
航海術を教わった

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今度はマウが伝える番だ

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夕暮れ時　マウは甥に
空と海の天気を読む方法を伝える

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「海に出るには良い天気になるだろう」

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「雲が低い」

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「嵐は来ない」

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空の形や色　そして師の言葉が
いつの日か甥を海の向こうに導くだろう

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「私たちの航海術はあなたがたのものとは違います」

35
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「海図も六分儀も要りません
　ただ頭を使うだけです」

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「海と空をしっかりと見て」

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「そして先人の教えを思い出すのです」

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「航法師には２つの階級があります」

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「普通の船乗りは‘パル’と呼ばれます」

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「航海術と秘術の両方を体得した者が‘ポー’です」

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「‘ポー’になるためには　
　特別な儀礼を通過しなければなりません」

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‘ポーの儀礼’は２０年以上行われていない

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マウは秘術と航海術を体得した最後の男だ

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海は男の領域

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サタワルの土地は女の領域

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マウは　妻カトリーナとのあいだに
１６人の子がいる

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土曜日には　家族の女たちがあつまって食事の準備をする

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ココナツ　パンノキ　タロイモは　
太平洋諸島共通の主食だ

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これらの食用植物は　島の在来種ではない

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初期の移民が持ち込んだものだ

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マウは５０歳

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子供の頃に航海術を学んだ

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「祖父が　仕事が休みのときに教えてくれました」

54
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「彼が亡くなるまで　私は注意深く耳を傾けました」

55
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「父も　私に教えてくれました」

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「一人で船を扱えるようになって　
　航海術の重要性に気づきました」

57
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「航海できない男は
　尊敬されません」

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「そんな男に名前はありません」

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年に2-3回　サタワルの男たちは共同で遠征漁を組織する

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マウが最終的な指示を出す

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「聞いてくれ」

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「網を仕掛けたら　輪になって」

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「魚を追い込むんだ」

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サタワル島は小さく　サンゴ礁に囲まれていて
食べ物がほとんどない

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サンゴ礁を保護するため　村長はあらゆる漁における
禁止事項を決めている

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このようなイベントを許可することは滅多にない

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男たち全員が丸一日漁をして　わずか２００パウンド

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サタワル島の人口は５００人

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３５家族

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漁獲は　平等に配られる

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マウは‘サオネ’と呼ばれる　分配の達人だ

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「サタワルのサンゴ礁は　状態が良くありません」

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「魚が足りないので　他の島に食料を頼っています」

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「西ファユ島には　魚がたくさんいます」

75
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「私たちにとっての　食料庫です」

76
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「あそこまで行かないと　餓えてしまいます」

77
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海に出るときは　皆　航法師に敬意を払う

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マウはカヌー乗員すべての命に責任を負う

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すべての判断は彼が下す

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乗組員は彼の子供のようなものだ

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追い風に乗って　西ファユ島まで１０時間の航海

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この機会に　マウは乗組員たちにうねりの読み方を教える

83
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「あのうねりは北から来るんだ」

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「あれかい？」
「そうだ」

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「あっちに向かっている」

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マウは　８種類のうねりを見分けることができる

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その知識をつかって進路を定める

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「あれは東からのうねり」

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西ファユ島は大きなサンゴ環礁

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海産資源の豊かな島だ

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「西ファユ島は　‘フリーランチ’の島と呼んでいます」

92
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「食料がたくさんあるからです」

93
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「西ファユ島は　サタワルの領地なので」

94
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「他の島の連中がここで漁をするときは
　私たちの許可が必要です」

95
00:12:46,499 --> 00:12:50,904
「大抵は許可します
　お互い様ですから」

96
00:13:22,335 --> 00:13:25,739
ここで三日間　漁をする

97
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水揚げは７００パウンド

98
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サタワル全島の水揚げの約４倍だ

99
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ウミガメも２匹

100
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ごちそうだ

101
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島の中央にあるチャペルで　帰途の無事を祈る

102
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以前はマウが　航海の守護神イェルルウェに
特別な祈りを捧げた

103
00:14:12,285 --> 00:14:16,356
今　男たちが祈るのはキリスト教の神だ

104
00:14:23,630 --> 00:14:25,799
「みんな　古の精神を忘れてしまいました」

105
00:14:30,437 --> 00:14:33,106
「かつて　航法師にはもっと権威がありました」

106
00:14:36,843 --> 00:14:41,848
「船乗りたちが航法師に敬意を払ったのは
　秘術を使えたからです」

107
00:14:44,117 --> 00:14:46,519
「かつては　島ごとに１人の航法師がいました」

108
00:14:48,355 --> 00:14:50,657
「今では少なくなりました」

109
00:14:55,95 --> 00:15:00,300
「大切にしないと　航海術は途絶えてしまいます」

110
00:15:05,305 --> 00:15:08,742
サタワルの航法師はその技術の最後の継承者

111
00:15:08,975 --> 00:15:11,845
かつては太平洋全域に見られた技術だ

112
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２００年前
ヨーロッパの探検家たちが　島民を詳しく調べ始めた

113
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１７７９年　英海軍船２隻が
ハワイ沖に錨を下ろした

114
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司令官のジェームズ・クックは　するどい観察眼の持ち主で

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島民に深い関心をもち

116
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彼らの生活風習を記録するよう命じた

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１２年間の探検で

118
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南太平洋のほぼすべての
主要な島々を訪れたクック船長は

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あらゆる島の　踊り　統治機構　宗教に
著しい類似点を見出した

120
00:16:28,188 --> 00:16:30,824
‘ポリネシア人’を見出したものクック船長だ

121
00:16:32,258 --> 00:16:34,327
彼らはどこからきたのか

122
00:16:34,828 --> 00:16:37,797
いかにして　この最果ての地に文化をもたらしたのか

123
00:16:39,466 --> 00:16:44,471
現在　科学者たちは　太平洋域において
３つの文化圏を区分している

124
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中部太平洋のポリネシアは　最大のグループ

125
00:16:50,777 --> 00:16:53,346
西側がメラネシア

126
00:16:54,581 --> 00:16:58,885
サタワルは北のミクロネシアに属する

127
00:16:59,919 --> 00:17:03,690
ポリネシア人は　２つの場所のいずれかから
移住してきた可能性がある

128
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アジアか　アメリカか

129
00:17:07,293 --> 00:17:11,331
太平洋では　強力な風と海流が東から西に流れている

130
00:17:12,399 --> 00:17:17,637
ポリネシア人の起源地がアジアならば
これらの流れに逆らってやってきたことになる

131
00:17:18,705 --> 00:17:23,410
アメリカ大陸が起源地ならば
彼らは単に島に漂着して定住したことになる

132
00:17:26,613 --> 00:17:30,183
卓越風と潮流のことを知ったトール・ハイエルダールは

133
00:17:30,183 --> 00:17:33,687
ポリネシア人は南米大陸からやってきた　と確信した

134
00:17:36,189 --> 00:17:39,859
１９４７年　ハイエルダールは
５人のクルーとともに

135
00:17:40,160 --> 00:17:43,763
彼の理論を証明するために
コンティキ号で冒険の旅に出た

136
00:17:45,532 --> 00:17:47,967
コンティキ号は舵のない筏だった

137
00:17:50,236 --> 00:17:54,607
筏は強い海流に乗って　数カ月間西へと漂流

138
00:17:56,343 --> 00:17:58,812
９３日目　初めて陸が見えた

139
00:18:00,647 --> 00:18:04,784
タヒチの東にある列島
トゥアモトゥ諸島だった

140
00:18:07,821 --> 00:18:09,956
筏は方向を変えることができず

141
00:18:10,323 --> 00:18:12,559
最初の島は通過

142
00:18:15,762 --> 00:18:20,767
８日後　コンティキ号はラロイア島の環礁に乗り上げた

143
00:18:24,604 --> 00:18:30,443
ハイエルダールは　南米大陸とポリネシアの間の
漂流航海が可能なことを示した

144
00:18:32,278 --> 00:18:34,748
しかし　海洋民族の移住がこの方法によるものだとしたら

145
00:18:34,881 --> 00:18:39,319
ポリネシア人は　優秀な船乗りでも
熟練の航海士でもなくてよかった

146
00:18:43,223 --> 00:18:48,828
クック船長は　ポリネシア人が　操船にも　航海術にも
熟練した民族であると信じていた

147
00:18:49,996 --> 00:18:56,36
クック船長は12年間　太平洋諸島を探索し
ポリネシア人を直接観察した

148
00:18:56,569 --> 00:19:01,574
彼は　カヌーが大量の貨物を運び　
自分の船の周りを回るのを見た

149
00:19:03,343 --> 00:19:08,348
数百マイル離れた島々の間を行き来する航海者にも会った

150
00:19:10,817 --> 00:19:15,822
クック船長は　ポリネシア人が　風と潮流に逆らって
アジアからやってきたと　確信した

151
00:19:18,425 --> 00:19:25,932
200年前にクック船長が予想したことは
考古学者によって完全に証明された

152
00:19:28,935 --> 00:19:35,742
フィジーのビティレブ島では　
アジアからポリネシアへの移住の証拠が見つかる

153
00:19:39,79 --> 00:19:44,84
シガトカ砂丘で　３層の人間の居住地跡が発見された

154
00:19:47,520 --> 00:19:50,457
最下層には初期のコロニーの痕跡が含まれる

155
00:19:53,326 --> 00:19:57,297
陶器の断片を調べることで

156
00:19:57,564 --> 00:20:02,569
ロジャー・グリーン博士は太平洋の開拓者のルーツをたどる

157
00:20:02,769 --> 00:20:06,339
「ここはシガトカ砂丘の最下層」

158
00:20:06,473 --> 00:20:09,542
「もっともエキサイティングな場所です」

159
00:20:10,76 --> 00:20:15,782
「ここには　紀元前5〜600年にさかのぼるラピタ式土器があり

160
00:20:15,949 --> 00:20:19,185
「その層から土器全体を再構築することができます」

161
00:20:19,486 --> 00:20:23,690
「典型的な器の形状でそれとわかります」

162
00:20:24,290 --> 00:20:33,566
「この地層で重要なのは　この出土品と
　東の島で見つかる出土品をリンクできることです」

163
00:20:33,767 --> 00:20:40,106
「トンガ　サモア　さらに西太平洋でも同じ素材を使用していて」

164
00:20:40,573 --> 00:20:48,548
「おどろくべきことに　ポリネシアの人々の
　祖先の起源をたどることができるのです」

165
00:20:49,949 --> 00:20:54,954
考古学者にとって　陶器のデザインは‘文化の指紋’だ

166
00:20:55,188 --> 00:20:57,490
「今はこのデザインね」

167
00:20:59,259 --> 00:21:02,262
ロジャー・グリーンがやってきたのは　フィジーのロワイェ村

168
00:21:02,696 --> 00:21:06,833
現代の陶工たちから　古代のデザインを学んでいる

169
00:21:09,669 --> 00:21:12,872
「この古いデザインですが　今でも作れますか？」

170
00:21:13,239 --> 00:21:16,776
「３０００年ほど前のものですが」

171
00:21:17,711 --> 00:21:24,484
グリーンはラピタ式土器のデザインを分析し
古代のパターンを再現する道具を作成した

172
00:21:25,452 --> 00:21:28,488
「木製の道具で再現できますか？」

173
00:21:28,755 --> 00:21:29,723
「はい」

174
00:21:31,991 --> 00:21:37,197
「これで　印をつけるんですね」

175
00:21:41,267 --> 00:21:44,637
「ちょっと揺らすんですか？貝殻のときみたいに」

176
00:21:44,771 --> 00:21:45,638
「ええ」

177
00:21:48,341 --> 00:21:51,344
グリーンは一連のモチーフのパターンを見出した

178
00:21:52,245 --> 00:21:55,415
この模様は緻密な法則によって組み立てられている

179
00:21:55,882 --> 00:22:00,887
単語が文法的に組み合わされて文を生成するのに似ている

180
00:22:01,988 --> 00:22:08,94
言語と同様　デザインもまた
文化共有の証となる

181
00:22:15,168 --> 00:22:21,408
最初期のラピタ式デザインは
ニューギニアの北　ビスマルク群島で発見された

182
00:22:22,676 --> 00:22:27,347
ここで考古学者は　
初期の海洋民族のルーツをたどった

183
00:22:27,614 --> 00:22:34,120
1500マイルの外洋を東に旅し
点在する島々に定住した人々だ

184
00:22:34,454 --> 00:22:40,93
彼らは　３０００年以上前に
フィジー　トンガ　サモアに到達した

185
00:22:41,361 --> 00:22:47,634
「土器分析の結果は他の物質研究からも裏付けられます」

186
00:22:47,867 --> 00:22:51,771
「さまざまな物質が　ラピタ社会間で交換されました」

187
00:22:52,339 --> 00:22:54,641
「例えば雲母は」

188
00:22:54,974 --> 00:22:58,745
「ボディ・ペインティングに使われたんでしょう」

189
00:22:58,912 --> 00:23:01,247
「火山ガラスの黒曜石は」

190
00:23:01,514 --> 00:23:06,519
「ナイフや削り器などの道具に使われたでしょうし」

191
00:23:06,619 --> 00:23:10,323
「チャート（堆積岩）も同様に使われました」

192
00:23:10,757 --> 00:23:14,694
「最もよく知られているのは黒曜石で」

193
00:23:15,61 --> 00:23:22,2
「たとえばこの黒曜石は　ニューギニア沖　
ビスマルク諸島から来たものです」

194
00:23:22,168 --> 00:23:30,377
「７００年以上をかけて　
１０００マイル離れたソロモン諸島に持ち込まれました」

195
00:23:30,677 --> 00:23:37,17
「７００年以上をかけて
黒曜石を１０００マイルも運ぶことができるのなら」

196
00:23:37,217 --> 00:23:42,222
「熟練した航海士や船乗りであったはずです」

197
00:23:45,525 --> 00:23:51,64
ポリネシア人が
風と波に逆らって航海したことに疑いの余地はない

198
00:23:56,102 --> 00:24:01,574
しかし現在　航海用カヌーを作り　
使うことができるのはミクロネシア人だけだ

199
00:24:04,477 --> 00:24:08,314
サタワル人のカヌーは技術的な到達点だ

200
00:24:15,455 --> 00:24:20,460
細く非対称の船体は
アウトリガーの抗力を相殺するように設計され

201
00:24:20,560 --> 00:24:23,196
カヌーは常に直進する

202
00:24:25,932 --> 00:24:28,635
「プロア船」と呼ばれるこの技法により

203
00:24:28,802 --> 00:24:32,305
アウトリガーは風に向かって進むことができる

204
00:24:33,239 --> 00:24:38,645
方向を変えるときは　帆全体を反対側に移動する

205
00:25:14,781 --> 00:25:19,786
プロア船のデザインは　３０００年前に完成していた

206
00:25:27,27 --> 00:25:32,32
カヌー製作の複雑な技術を習得している者はごくわずかだ

207
00:25:50,316 --> 00:25:54,788
イカガは　カヌー製作の達人である‘セナ’の称号をもつ

208
00:25:56,956 --> 00:26:01,294
「線に沿って切るんだ」

209
00:26:07,167 --> 00:26:11,37
手斧は　パンノキの丸太から船体を掘り出すのに使う

210
00:26:16,609 --> 00:26:18,978
イカガは設計図を使わない

211
00:26:19,913 --> 00:26:23,850
長年　彼はカヌーの複雑な形状を記憶してきた

212
00:26:33,460 --> 00:26:36,196
「ここからやるか？」

213
00:26:38,264 --> 00:26:41,334
「いや　真ん中からだ」

214
00:27:07,27 --> 00:27:12,32

これが終わったら　船体をカヌーハウスに運び　乾燥させる

215
00:27:13,700 --> 00:27:16,169
サタワル島には8つのカヌーハウスがある

216
00:27:17,3 --> 00:27:20,707
男たちの社交クラブであり　学校であり
工房でもある

217
00:27:39,359 --> 00:27:43,263
カヌー作りに必要なものはすべてサタワル島で手に入る

218
00:27:48,468 --> 00:27:50,303
ロープはココナツの繊維から作る

219
00:27:52,839 --> 00:27:56,343
ココナッツの殻は
‘セナック’と呼ばれる細い撚り糸になる

220
00:28:08,521 --> 00:28:13,526
セナックロープは粗く　カヌーに使うのに適している

221
00:28:22,736 --> 00:28:27,741
火で温めたパンノキは　
カヌーの水タンクの継ぎ目を作る

222
00:28:31,611 --> 00:28:36,349
ココナッツの柔軟な外皮は
厚板間のコーキング材にうってつけだ

223
00:28:58,138 --> 00:29:01,341
厚板はいずれも正確に切り出される

224
00:29:16,856 --> 00:29:21,861
くさびとやしの葉で板を留めて
パンノキの板材が固定されるまで待つ

225
00:30:02,936 --> 00:30:05,772
２週間後　カヌーはほぼ完成

226
00:30:06,6 --> 00:30:09,42
仮止めの紐を抜いて　セナックのロープを結わえる

227
00:30:15,148 --> 00:30:20,153
何世紀もの間　太平洋では
こうやってカヌーが作られてきた

228
00:30:23,23 --> 00:30:26,926
考古学者は　これらと同じ技術が

229
00:30:26,926 --> 00:30:30,530
サタワル島から東4000マイル地点の島にも
あることを見出した

230
00:30:34,801 --> 00:30:39,739
フアヒネのタヒチ島では　ビショップ博物館のヨシ・セノトが

231
00:30:39,739 --> 00:30:42,108
驚くべき発見をした

232
00:30:42,976 --> 00:30:46,346
古代の航海者のカヌーに使った
２枚の板材だ

233
00:30:50,984 --> 00:30:57,524
1100年間埋もれていたもので
古代のカヌーに関する　いまのところ唯一最古の発掘物だ

234
00:31:03,663 --> 00:31:07,701
板材の片側に　紐を通す穴がある

235
00:31:08,568 --> 00:31:11,237
このカヌーは　セナック・ロープで結び固定されていた

236
00:31:11,604 --> 00:31:14,40
サタワルのカヌーと同じ技法だ

237
00:31:16,343 --> 00:31:24,784
西暦850年　津波がこの島を襲い
何百もの物品が泥の保護層に埋もれた

238
00:31:27,554 --> 00:31:28,788
「ヨシ」

239
00:31:31,91 --> 00:31:34,194
「何を見つけた？」
「また釣り針よ」

240
00:31:35,161 --> 00:31:37,630
「いいね」

241
00:31:37,997 --> 00:31:41,0
「初期のものね　このあたりでよく出るわね」

242
00:31:41,468 --> 00:31:47,140
「初期のマルケサス型かな　曲がり方がこう」

243
00:31:49,209 --> 00:31:52,12
２００以上の釣り針が発見されている

244
00:31:52,545 --> 00:31:55,915
これはサンゴ礁の小さな魚を獲るためのものだ

245
00:32:00,854 --> 00:32:06,493
真珠貝を使ったこのココナッツおろし器の形状は
サタワルに見られるものと似ている

246
00:32:15,502 --> 00:32:20,507
このペンダントは階級章で　首長のものだろう

247
00:32:24,711 --> 00:32:28,281
フアヒネ島では真珠貝の遺物が多く出土する

248
00:32:28,581 --> 00:32:33,586
セノトは　ここが
交易品を製造する村であると考えている

249
00:32:37,390 --> 00:32:41,461
別の場所では「精霊石」が見つかっている

250
00:32:41,928 --> 00:32:44,431
ボンバライの寺院の跡だ

251
00:32:45,365 --> 00:32:50,370
フアヒネでは　男が海に出る前に儀式を行った

252
00:32:52,272 --> 00:32:54,541
「全長を測ろう」

253
00:32:55,141 --> 00:33:00,146
最後の木製の出土物から　カヌーのサイズを推測する

254
00:33:00,613 --> 00:33:05,618
１３フィートの舵
８０フィートのカヌーに取り付けられていた

255
00:33:06,786 --> 00:33:11,791
「全長３メートル８８センチ」

256
00:33:12,25 --> 00:33:13,927
「完成品ではないわね」

257
00:33:14,227 --> 00:33:22,702
「そうだね　斧の跡が残っているし　表面が雑だね」

258
00:33:23,136 --> 00:33:26,339
「きちんと仕上げられていない」

259
00:33:26,506 --> 00:33:29,142
「ここで舵を作ってたんだね」

260
00:33:29,309 --> 00:33:32,746
「ということは　カヌー自体もね」

261
00:33:36,549 --> 00:33:44,57
１３００年前　フアヒネ島民は
大型の航海用カヌー用にこの板を作った

262
00:33:53,266 --> 00:33:57,470
ポリネシア人はこのカヌーで壮大な旅に出て

263
00:33:57,704 --> 00:34:00,640
太平洋の最果ての地に住み着いた

264
00:34:02,976 --> 00:34:06,413
ポリネシアは壮大な海洋移民の舞台だ

265
00:34:06,646 --> 00:34:13,553
3000年以上前に　ラピタ文化の人々が
フィジー　トンガ　サモアに到着

266
00:34:13,753 --> 00:34:19,25
紀元１年頃　東に向かい
ポリネシアの中心に押し寄せた

267
00:34:19,392 --> 00:34:24,397
この地から　彼らは長く困難な航海に乗り出す

268
00:34:24,698 --> 00:34:29,703
向かう先は　ニュージーランド　イースター島　ハワイだ

269
00:34:35,108 --> 00:34:38,411
クック船長より15世紀以上前に

270
00:34:38,411 --> 00:34:42,882
ポリネシアのカヌーがハワイ諸島に上陸していた

271
00:35:34,334 --> 00:35:37,337
モロカイ島　ハラワ渓谷

272
00:35:40,106 --> 00:35:45,578
10年前　考古学者が
古代ハワイの村落の痕跡を発見した

273
00:35:47,647 --> 00:35:52,652
今は草が生い茂るこの地に
最初の入植者が上陸したのだ

274
00:35:54,587 --> 00:35:57,657
ビショップ博物館の考古学者
パトリック・キルヒ博士

275
00:35:58,825 --> 00:36:04,998
「西暦600年頃　初期ポリネシア人の一団が
　東モロカイのハラワ渓谷に到着しました」

276
00:36:05,498 --> 00:36:09,669
「彼らにとって　この谷こそ
　理想的な環境でした」

277
00:36:09,969 --> 00:36:14,174
「豊富な淡水
　タロイモ栽培に適した低地」

278
00:36:14,341 --> 00:36:18,211
「サツマイモなどの乾燥作物を
　栽培できるなだらかな地形」

279
00:36:18,478 --> 00:36:23,16
「湾にいたる海岸線では
　貝や魚がたくさん獲れます」

280
00:36:23,249 --> 00:36:25,852
「私はこの低い丘のあたりを発掘して」

281
00:36:26,152 --> 00:36:28,955
「居住跡を見つけました」

282
00:36:29,322 --> 00:36:35,595
「杭跡や　礎石の配置から
　小さな円形の小屋に住んでいたことがわかります」

283
00:36:35,829 --> 00:36:40,400
「小屋に残されていたのは
　石斧　釣り針　サンゴでできたヤスリ」

284
00:36:40,400 --> 00:36:42,502
「貝や骨でできた装飾品」

285
00:36:42,502 --> 00:36:49,109
「これら人工物の様式は　タヒチ　マルケサスなど
　ここより南の島々で見つかったものと似ていました」

286
00:36:49,342 --> 00:36:53,480
「犬　豚　鶏の骨もありました」

287
00:36:53,480 --> 00:37:00,687
「人々が新天地を求めて　
　ここまで航海してきたことがわかります」

288
00:37:02,55 --> 00:37:08,595
「ハルワ渓谷は　いわばハワイ社会の発展の縮図で」

289
00:37:08,595 --> 00:37:14,534
「最初の定住から　複雑な首長国に至る
　進化の過程が見て取れるのです」

290
00:37:26,680 --> 00:37:30,617
島々の豊富な資源に魅了されたハワイ人は

291
00:37:30,617 --> 00:37:34,721
航海を捨て　豊かな渓谷の斜面を耕作し始めた

292
00:37:36,356 --> 00:37:39,325
それぞれの谷では　首長が権力を握った

293
00:37:40,694 --> 00:37:44,230
彼らは島全体の支配権を巡って戦った

294
00:37:48,1 --> 00:37:51,638
巨大な寺院が　征服の偉業と　神々を称える

295
00:37:57,977 --> 00:38:00,547
クック船長が来航する前の世紀には

296
00:38:00,980 --> 00:38:04,84
ハワイの首長たちは頻繁に戦争した

297
00:38:13,59 --> 00:38:18,498
「コナの洞窟は　
　戦争中の避難所としても使われていました」

298
00:38:19,32 --> 00:38:24,37
「棒人間みたいなペトログリフ（壁画）は
　ここに住んでいた庶民でしょう」

299
00:38:25,5 --> 00:38:28,708
「洞窟の光沢のある溶岩壁に刻まれています」

300
00:38:29,42 --> 00:38:31,411
「これは人物画で」

301
00:38:31,878 --> 00:38:34,581
「カヌーの櫂を掲げていますね」

302
00:38:34,981 --> 00:38:39,486
「これも　櫂を頭上に持ち上げています」

303
00:38:39,686 --> 00:38:41,588
「これは釣り針でしょうか」

304
00:38:41,654 --> 00:38:50,330
「ハワイ社会の発展が　長距離航海の特性に
　基づいているとしたら　面白いですね」

305
00:38:50,730 --> 00:38:55,735
「航海を成功させるには　
　船長に大きな権限がなければなりません」

306
00:38:56,369 --> 00:39:01,374
「乗組員は　リーダーが新しい土地に導いてくれると
　信じていたはずです」

307
00:39:01,975 --> 00:39:06,980
「ですから　ハワイの強力な諸公国が発展しえたのは」

308
00:39:07,147 --> 00:39:10,884
「カヌー社会の特性によるものなのです」

309
00:39:13,19 --> 00:39:18,24
１９７６年　カヌー社会は生まれ変わった

310
00:39:20,960 --> 00:39:25,965
ポリネシア航海船の精密なレプリカ
「ホクレア号」

311
00:39:33,39 --> 00:39:36,543
素材は現代のものだが
古代のデザインを踏襲している

312
00:39:38,445 --> 00:39:41,247
ホクレア号は　ハワイータヒチ間を航行し

313
00:39:41,715 --> 00:39:46,720
ポリネシアのカヌー製作者と
航法師の伝統的技術を再現する旅に出た

314
00:39:49,556 --> 00:39:54,561
乗組員１７人　物資６トン

315
00:39:58,832 --> 00:40:02,702
ホクレア号の旅は　1000年前のスタイルだ

316
00:40:02,936 --> 00:40:05,405
海図や計器は使わない

317
00:40:05,939 --> 00:40:09,275
航法師は　マウ・ピアイルックだ

318
00:40:11,745 --> 00:40:15,382
近代航法の航海士で　学者でもあるデビッド・ルイスが

319
00:40:15,749 --> 00:40:18,284
マウの航海術を学ぶべく遠征隊に参加

320
00:40:19,252 --> 00:40:24,257
2500マイルの旅は　マウも経験がない

321
00:40:24,724 --> 00:40:27,627
しかも見知らぬ海だ

322
00:40:30,563 --> 00:40:32,966
「最初の２，３日は　不安でした」

323
00:40:32,966 --> 00:40:35,602
「でも　経験は積んでいます」

324
00:40:37,103 --> 00:40:39,39
「幾晩もの海の旅」

325
00:40:39,673 --> 00:40:41,574
「嵐も乗り越えてきました」

326
00:40:42,509 --> 00:40:47,514
「恐怖心は脇に置いて　
　海に出ることの幸せを感じようとしました」

327
00:40:50,750 --> 00:40:57,691
旅が進むにつれて　ハワイ人のクルーは
　ポリネシアの先人に対する敬意を新たにした

328
00:41:01,561 --> 00:41:04,564
「古代ポリネシア人も　
　いまの私たちと同じです」

329
00:41:04,731 --> 00:41:07,67
「海図も計器もありません」

330
00:41:07,467 --> 00:41:10,437
「彼らも先人たちの教えを信じていたはず」

331
00:41:10,437 --> 00:41:12,372
「それは‘勇気’です」

332
00:41:13,440 --> 00:41:18,445
「勇気さえあれば　どこへでも行けるし
　迷うことはありません」

333
00:41:19,412 --> 00:41:23,950
「私は先人たちの言葉を信じるからこそ
　航法師なのです」

334
00:41:25,285 --> 00:41:29,689
「父のカヌーハウスで　このことを学びました」

335
00:41:30,824 --> 00:41:36,663
サタワル島で　マウは次世代に航海術を伝承する

336
00:41:39,966 --> 00:41:44,371
「マットに穴を開けることから始める」

337
00:41:48,641 --> 00:41:51,277
「星の動きを学ぶ」

338
00:41:51,611 --> 00:41:54,581
「それから海に出る」

339
00:41:57,684 --> 00:42:00,286
マウは　シンプルな概念から語り始める

340
00:42:00,420 --> 00:42:02,889
スター・コンパスのようなものだ

341
00:42:04,591 --> 00:42:09,596
３２の珊瑚岩が　星の出　星の入の方角を表す

342
00:42:16,569 --> 00:42:19,372
「マイラップはここから昇る」

343
00:42:19,572 --> 00:42:21,808
コンパスは東向き

344
00:42:22,542 --> 00:42:26,579
　‘大きな鳥’を意味するマイラップ星

345
00:42:35,422 --> 00:42:39,92
「これはみな‘北の星’だ」

346
00:42:47,634 --> 00:42:50,670
「数えてみようか」

347
00:42:54,174 --> 00:42:58,111
「マイラップとウリウルの間に　星が７つある」

348
00:42:58,478 --> 00:43:02,582
「南にも星が７つ」

349
00:43:14,761 --> 00:43:17,63
「これをまず覚えるんだ」

350
00:43:22,35 --> 00:43:27,40
マウのコンパスは　
星の出　星の入の方角によって定義される

351
00:43:28,341 --> 00:43:33,146
マイラップ星は　サタワル島の東から昇り　西に沈む

352
00:43:33,246 --> 00:43:35,415
これが東西を定義する

353
00:43:36,149 --> 00:43:41,154
ムール星は北東から昇り　北西に沈む

354
00:43:41,588 --> 00:43:44,24
これはトゥモア星

355
00:43:44,591 --> 00:43:49,596
南十字星は　つねに南を指す

356
00:43:51,64 --> 00:43:56,69
地球の自転軸の先にある星は動かない

357
00:43:56,536 --> 00:44:00,540
ウォルウォルファン星　北極星だ

358
00:44:01,574 --> 00:44:04,744
マウのスター・コンパスは　シンプルな学習教材だ

359
00:44:05,245 --> 00:44:10,250
実際の夜空は　はるかに複雑だ

360
00:44:12,18 --> 00:44:17,23
６月　東の空の星はこのように動く

361
00:44:17,724 --> 00:44:22,729
昇ってくるトゥモア星は南東を指し示す

362
00:44:23,329 --> 00:44:27,167
真夜中になると　トゥモア星は高く昇りすぎるので

363
00:44:27,400 --> 00:44:32,172
同じ方角から昇る　次の目印を見つけなければならない

364
00:44:33,773 --> 00:44:37,210
トゥモア星と同じ方角から昇るのがシクストラ星

365
00:44:39,312 --> 00:44:42,982
各コンパスポイントは　多くの星によって定義される

366
00:44:43,116 --> 00:44:48,121
マウは　１５０以上の軌道を記憶している

367
00:44:54,994 --> 00:44:59,999
出航から２０日　ホクレア号は赤道に近づく

368
00:45:00,266 --> 00:45:05,271
タヒチ島は1400マイル先にあり　
マウは　トゥモア星の昇る方角に舵を取る

369
00:45:06,773 --> 00:45:11,277
「今向かっているのは？」

370
00:45:11,611 --> 00:45:14,447
「トゥモア星です」

371
00:45:15,782 --> 00:45:18,551
「南西ですね」

372
00:45:18,852 --> 00:45:23,256
「アンタレスですね」

373
00:45:23,923 --> 00:45:28,928
「もうすぐお目にかかれますね」

374
00:45:32,966 --> 00:45:35,468
タヒチまで１０００マイル

375
00:45:35,468 --> 00:45:37,771
嵐がホクレア号を出迎える

376
00:45:46,413 --> 00:45:53,153
８昼夜　空は雲に覆われ　
導き星は　垣間見ることさえできない

377
00:45:53,953 --> 00:45:57,857
マウは星以外のもの手掛かりにして
コースを維持する

378
00:45:58,24 --> 00:46:02,595
「海のうねりには８種類ある」

379
00:46:04,831 --> 00:46:06,933
「続けよう」

380
00:46:15,41 --> 00:46:18,144
「うねりが出会うところで」

381
00:46:19,746 --> 00:46:23,583
「大きな頂ができる」

382
00:46:28,254 --> 00:46:31,191
「ここにいて」

383
00:46:31,391 --> 00:46:34,394
「うねりを見るんだ」

384
00:46:42,202 --> 00:46:45,705
「マイラップ星に向かっていれば」

385
00:46:47,874 --> 00:46:52,879
「マイラップ星からのうねりは
　こんなふうに船体を打つ」

386
00:46:53,246 --> 00:46:55,648
「そして後ろに抜けてゆく」

387
00:47:03,556 --> 00:47:06,826
「他の種類のうねりもある」

388
00:47:07,27 --> 00:47:12,32
「どれもカヌー操作には必要だ」

389
00:47:16,636 --> 00:47:18,338
「ムル星からのうねりは」

390
00:47:18,538 --> 00:47:23,543
「船体とアウトリガーを同時にたたく」

391
00:47:32,285 --> 00:47:37,290
「だからカヌーはこんなふうに動く」

392
00:47:47,33 --> 00:47:52,38
経験をつんだ航法師であれば　
カヌーのあらゆる上下動を感知する

393
00:47:52,906 --> 00:47:57,911
うねりが見えなくても　コースを外れることはない

394
00:47:59,45 --> 00:48:01,781
「この波はどこから？」

395
00:48:01,781 --> 00:48:04,117
「マイラップ星です」

396
00:48:04,284 --> 00:48:06,686
「じゃあ北東ですね？」

397
00:48:10,256 --> 00:48:15,261
「ムル星からの波も北東です」

398
00:48:15,528 --> 00:48:18,465
「南西からの波も感じますね」

399
00:48:18,798 --> 00:48:22,369
「夜でも波がわかるんですか？」
「ええ」

400
00:48:26,106 --> 00:48:29,609
ホクレア号はすでに２０００マイル以上を航行

401
00:48:29,609 --> 00:48:32,712
潮流も風向も違う海域だが

402
00:48:33,380 --> 00:48:38,385
マウはタヒチへの方角は決して見失わない

403
00:48:40,854 --> 00:48:44,424
彼は毎日　ホクレア号の位置を修正する

404
00:48:44,824 --> 00:48:49,829
方角　速度　カヌーに作用する
すべての力を計算するのだ

405
00:48:54,901 --> 00:48:58,304
海図はマウの頭の中にのみ　存在する

406
00:48:58,972 --> 00:49:05,645
しかし　2500マイル余の航海で　
　誤差は40マイルを下回る

407
00:49:07,647 --> 00:49:09,149
３０日目

408
00:49:09,683 --> 00:49:13,319
マウの予測では　２４時間以内に到着するはずだ

409
00:49:21,27 --> 00:49:22,962
マウの旅は成就した

410
00:49:23,463 --> 00:49:27,434
彼は古代の航海技術を
ポリネシア海域によみがえらせた

411
00:49:28,1 --> 00:49:32,105
偉大なる航海遺産を見た人々は
誇りを取り戻した

412
00:49:36,509 --> 00:49:39,713
ホクレア号の到着日は　国民の祝日となった

413
00:49:40,780 --> 00:49:45,518
海岸は　英雄を出迎える２００００人で埋め尽くされた

414
00:49:51,624 --> 00:49:55,862
「カヌーはゆく」

415
00:49:57,564 --> 00:50:00,533
「人々を乗せて」

416
00:50:03,169 --> 00:50:06,873
「彼らはゆく」

417
00:50:07,374 --> 00:50:11,378
「海こそ故郷」

418
00:50:13,613 --> 00:50:16,383
「はるか海の果てまで」

419
00:50:17,550 --> 00:50:20,86
「時きたれば」

420
00:50:23,256 --> 00:50:26,426
「主　立ち現れり」

421
00:50:29,195 --> 00:50:33,233
「父と　子と」

422
00:50:43,576 --> 00:50:45,478
「タヒチへの航海はすばらしいものでした」

423
00:50:45,845 --> 00:50:49,649
「みんな　先祖が成し遂げてきたことを
　思い出すでしょう」

424
00:50:50,50 --> 00:50:52,719
「学びたいという者も出てくるでしょう」

425
00:50:56,589 --> 00:51:00,894
「祖先は航海術を　誇りの源として大切にしていました」

426
00:51:01,561 --> 00:51:03,997
「最近の子供たちは違います」

427
00:51:04,431 --> 00:51:06,900
「怖がる子もいるし」

428
00:51:07,200 --> 00:51:09,836
「面倒くさがる子もいます」

429
00:51:10,770 --> 00:51:14,341
「航法師がいなくなれば
　サタワル島もなくなります」

430
00:51:15,8 --> 00:51:19,145
「みな　チューク諸島　サイパン　グアムに出ていきます」

431
00:51:19,312 --> 00:51:22,82
「仕事を探しにね」

432
00:51:26,753 --> 00:51:31,224
「今では　航海術を好んで実践しているのは
老人ばかりです」

433
00:51:31,591 --> 00:51:33,326
「できれば次の世代に伝えたい」

434
00:51:44,637 --> 00:51:48,541
「この歌は　島々を駆け巡る
　男たちの歌だ」

435
00:51:50,210 --> 00:51:52,245
「航法師の歌だ」

436
00:51:59,686 --> 00:52:02,655
「彼は　旅立つ」

437
00:52:03,957 --> 00:52:07,660
「島を遠く離れて」

438
00:52:09,829 --> 00:52:13,133
「空を読み」

439
00:52:14,734 --> 00:52:17,937
「風を読む」

440
00:52:21,708 --> 00:52:24,477
「海の精よ」

441
00:52:25,445 --> 00:52:28,314
「さだめを教えておくれ」

442
00:52:31,284 --> 00:52:35,989
「彼は　旅立つ」

443
00:52:45,231 --> 00:52:47,867
「義理の息子はどうするでしょうか」

444
00:52:48,435 --> 00:52:50,203
「多分　島を出てゆくでしょう」

445
00:52:50,603 --> 00:52:52,172
「私の娘を連れて」

446
00:52:53,340 --> 00:52:55,375
「息子たちの多くが島を出て行きました」

447
00:52:56,42 --> 00:52:57,711
「幸せになってほしい」

448
00:53:00,647 --> 00:53:02,716
「義理の息子は寄宿校に送られました」

449
00:53:04,517 --> 00:53:07,87
「クルーの多くも寄宿校に行きました」

450
00:53:09,55 --> 00:53:10,623
「私も学校に送られましたが」

451
00:53:10,824 --> 00:53:13,827
「島に戻って　航海術の修行を続けました」

452
00:53:14,127 --> 00:53:15,929
「こんな面白いものはない」

453
00:53:19,165 --> 00:53:21,768
「しかし　学校に行った子供たちは」

454
00:53:22,35 --> 00:53:25,472
「島に戻っても　航海術には関心がありません」

455
00:53:33,13 --> 00:53:38,18
「ちいさな息子の二人には　島に残ってほしいんです」

456
00:53:39,152 --> 00:53:42,489
「ここで　私が教えうる限りのことを　受け継いでほしい」

457
00:53:43,823 --> 00:53:45,125
「私が死ぬ前に」

458
00:53:46,793 --> 00:53:48,762
「学校にいくのは構いませんが」

459
00:53:49,262 --> 00:53:50,697
「他の島ではだめです」

460
00:53:51,798 --> 00:53:53,533
「この島で　伝えたい」

461
00:54:21,828 --> 00:54:24,431
「よく見てな」

462
00:54:31,638 --> 00:54:33,606
「引っ張れ」

463
00:54:44,918 --> 00:54:48,555
「この映画を若い者たちが観たら」

464
00:54:49,489 --> 00:54:51,91
「わかってもらえるかもしれません」

465
00:54:51,758 --> 00:54:53,326
「航海術の大切さを」

466
00:54:58,331 --> 00:55:05,71
「いま伝えなければ　航海術は永遠に失われてしまいます」

467
00:55:06,39 --> 00:55:10,10
「映画を観れば　
　何を失いつつあるか　考えてくれるでしょう」

468
00:55:11,544 --> 00:55:14,247
「だから　この映画は重要な意味を持っているんです」

469
00:55:15,548 --> 00:55:21,755
「私の世代より後　航法師が途絶えてしまうことが心配です」

The Black Hmong of Lao Chai Village

www.youtube.com

1
00:00:26,559 --> 00:00:29,329
ラオカイ村の黒モン族

2
00:00:35,502 --> 00:00:39,539
ラオカイ省　黒モン族のコミュニティ

3
00:00:39,706 --> 00:00:43,843
完全な異世界です

4
00:00:44,77 --> 00:00:49,82
類を見ない素晴らしい文化

5
00:00:49,282 --> 00:00:53,586
彼らの家はまるで博物館

6
00:00:55,355 --> 00:00:58,692
生きた歴史なんです

7
00:00:59,125 --> 00:01:02,495
ラオカイには　人気のトレッキングルートがあって

8
00:01:02,662 --> 00:01:05,598
サパ村は省都に近く

9
00:01:05,799 --> 00:01:08,702
モン族たちが物売りで生計を立てています

10
00:01:08,935 --> 00:01:11,104
ずっと路上で物を売っています

11
00:01:11,304 --> 00:01:13,106
ベトナム人の学校には行かず
読み書きもできません

12
00:01:13,340 --> 00:01:15,909
英語は旅行者から教えてもらいました

13
00:01:16,242 --> 00:01:19,12
教育機会の少ないモン族の若者ですが

14
00:01:19,212 --> 00:01:22,349
ツアーガイドとして働いています

15
00:01:22,549 --> 00:01:28,655
観光とは　サービスとは何かを理解しているので
起業も夢ではありません

16
00:01:28,988 --> 00:01:31,324
あなたはいつもカフェに行くわね？

17
00:01:31,424 --> 00:01:33,493
「ワン・ワンダラー・チャイナ」にね

18
00:01:33,727 --> 00:01:35,362
考えを改めなさい

19
00:01:35,595 --> 00:01:39,132
黒モン族は　人を惹きつける魅力がある

20
00:01:39,366 --> 00:01:41,668
ほんとはカフェ人でしょ？カナダ人じゃなくて

21
00:01:41,935 --> 00:01:45,638
友好的で　お茶目

22
00:01:45,905 --> 00:01:47,974
カフェが好きなのね

23
00:01:48,108 --> 00:01:50,810
頭の回転が早く　英語も流暢

24
00:01:50,977 --> 00:01:54,80
うちの学生よりはるかに上手

25
00:01:54,314 --> 00:01:59,319
ベトナム人とモン族との間には　大きな格差があります

26
00:01:59,486 --> 00:02:02,889
教育も　路上での扱われ方も

27
00:02:02,989 --> 00:02:06,326
モン族とベトナム人は　かなり違います

28
00:02:06,426 --> 00:02:08,361
都会から離れて住み

29
00:02:08,628 --> 00:02:11,564
独自の文化　独自の言語をもち

30
00:02:11,865 --> 00:02:16,770
ベトナム語はあまり話せず
それが障壁になっています

31
00:02:17,3 --> 00:02:24,544
ベトナム人の中には彼らを理解せず
差別する人もいます

32
00:02:24,711 --> 00:02:29,716
「学もなく　汚れた連中」と言うひとがいて
ショックを受けました

33
00:02:29,949 --> 00:02:34,954
キン族（ベトナム人）は　学があって

34
00:02:35,155 --> 00:02:39,526
技術があって　ビジネスのチャンスもある

35
00:02:40,493 --> 00:02:45,31
モン族は　キン族ほどの教育を受ける機会がなく

36
00:02:45,198 --> 00:02:47,867
起業のチャンスもありませんでした

37
00:02:48,301 --> 00:02:51,971
幸い　モン族には驚くほど地力があり

38
00:02:52,238 --> 00:02:56,343
自分で変化を選択する知性があります

39
00:02:56,543 --> 00:03:02,148
ぼくらがタ・バンでやっていたことを
次はラオカイでやるんだ

40
00:03:02,315 --> 00:03:04,117
そこで何をするの？

41
00:03:04,284 --> 00:03:06,586
ホームステイ・ハウスの運営だ

42
00:03:06,853 --> 00:03:08,421
来るかい？

43
00:03:08,421 --> 00:03:09,489
うん

44
00:03:09,622 --> 00:03:14,627
キャピラノ大学のサパ村プロジェクトは
１０年近くになります

45
00:03:15,595 --> 00:03:19,65
僕たちも　ラオカイで約３年

46
00:03:19,232 --> 00:03:24,237
より文化的な製品を作成し
文化体験ツアーの向上を目指しています

47
00:03:24,337 --> 00:03:32,579
モンの人たちと協力して
「ホームステイ」「短時間バティック体験」などを商品化

48
00:03:32,746 --> 00:03:35,782
新しいトレッキングルートを整備して

49
00:03:35,915 --> 00:03:40,920
一日の終りに村に立ち寄って
一泊できるようにしました

50
00:03:41,87 --> 00:03:44,858
このツアーでは
旅行会社のツアコンたちをラオカイに連れて行きました

51
00:03:44,991 --> 00:03:49,629
モン族と協力して
ラオカイでこの観光商品を共同開発したい

52
00:03:50,330 --> 00:03:55,335
この人は伝統的なモン族の家と
新しいタイプのゲストハウスを持っていて

53
00:03:55,535 --> 00:04:00,540
選択肢があり
誰もが独自のホームステイ体験を得られます

54
00:04:02,542 --> 00:04:08,148
文化体験のクライマックスはディナー
ツアコンにとっても素敵な体験だったようです

55
00:04:08,314 --> 00:04:11,384
みんな集まって　大スケールのごちそうを準備

56
00:04:11,584 --> 00:04:15,422
ニワトリ１０羽　ブタ２頭　
３０リットルの酒

57
00:04:15,722 --> 00:04:17,123
最高ね

58
00:04:17,390 --> 00:04:24,297
ツアコンたちも　伝統音楽　ダンス　食事に大喜び

59
00:04:24,564 --> 00:04:32,172
ディナーは大成功でした
みんな打ち解けて　一体感が生まれた

60
00:04:34,941 --> 00:04:39,179
新しいプロジェクトも
PADA財団からの惜しみない支援のもと

61
00:04:39,479 --> 00:04:44,718
事業収益は村での職業訓練に使われます

62
00:04:44,918 --> 00:04:53,793
カプラニ大学　協力校のハノイ・オープン大学
村の青年会を通じてトレーニングを提供します

63
00:04:55,862 --> 00:04:59,866
サパ村では昔から　黒モン族は観光の一部を担っていて

64
00:05:00,133 --> 00:05:01,901
可能性を秘めています

65
00:05:02,202 --> 00:05:05,939
毎日　何百人もの旅行者が訪れ

66
00:05:06,206 --> 00:05:10,710
若者は　コミュニティを支えるという志があります

67
00:05:11,44 --> 00:05:16,583
ラオカイのモン族の文化を体験し
泊まってもらう

68
00:05:16,883 --> 00:05:19,719
これが持続可能な観光の形なんです

69
00:05:20,387 --> 00:05:21,688
自由になりたい

70
00:05:21,888 --> 00:05:26,893
自分の会社をつくって　家族も持ちたい

71
00:05:27,327 --> 00:05:33,900
簡単じゃないけれど　協力すればできると思う

■

0:00    
0:10    In the early 18th century, a Dutch explorer named Admiral Jacob Roggeveen was sailing across the vast blue expanse of the South Pacific Ocean. 
He had been on the sea for 17 days, searching the southern ocean for a mythical continent known as Terra Australis. 
When he saw a small island on the horizon, his heart must have skipped a beat, as Roggeveen recounts in his diary. 
There was a great rejoicing among the people and everyone hoped that this low land might prove to be a foretoken of the unknown southern continent. 
But as their ships approached, it became clear that this was no vast continent, only a small island; a dot of land in the middle of the ocean. 
Nevertheless, Roggeveen was curious and he ordered his three ships to prepare for landing.
1:11    It was Easter Day, 1722. 
As the Dutch got closer, it became clear that the island ahead of them was inhabited. 
They saw smoke rising from the villages along the coast, but it was a seemingly barren land. 
We originally, from a further distance, considered Easter Island to be sandy. 
The reasons for that is that we counted as sand the withered grass, hay, or other scorched and burnt vegetation, because its wasted appearance could give no other impression than of a singular poverty and barrenness. 
As they sailed closer, the islands' inhabitants came out on canoes to meet them, greeting them with friendly astonishment. 
This was much like other islands that Roggeveen had visited before. 
But when he got ashore, what he found on this island amazed him. 
Along the beaches, lined up in rows with their backs to the sea, was a line of stone statues. 
They were carved from black volcanic stone, some of them standing 10 meters high, wearing crowns of red sandstone. 
But Roggeveen and his men couldn't understand how these statues had got there. 
Stone images at first caused us to be struck with astonishment because we couldn't comprehend how it was possible that these people, who were devoid of heavy thick timber for making any machines as well as strong ropes, nevertheless had been able to erect such images which were fully 30 feet high and thick in proportion. 
Roggeveen and his men didn't stay long. 
They soon set sail away from the island and on across the Pacific, but the remarkable image stayed with them and they must have asked themselves how did those people construct so many vast stone statues when so little building material seemed available to them? Why had they built so many, and if such an advanced civilization had once lived on this island, where on earth had it vanished to?
3:57    My name's Paul Cooper and you're listening to The Fall of Civilizations podcast. 
Each episode, I look at a civilization of the past that rose to glory and then collapsed into the ashes of history. 
I want to ask what did they have in common? What led to their fall, and what did it feel like to be a person alive at the time who witnessed the end of their world? In this episode, I want to tell the story of one of archaeology's most enduring puzzles; the mystery of Easter Island. 
I want to explore why it's not actually much of a mystery at all. 
I want to examine how this unique community grew up in complete isolation, how it survived the tests of centuries against overwhelming odds, and I want to take you through the evidence about what happened to finally bring this society and its enormous statues crashing down.
5:06    The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's oceans. 
At over 165 million square kilometers, it covers one-third of the Earth's total surface. 
It's so vast that if you were to look at Earth from outer space, it's just about possible to position yourself so that only the Pacific Ocean is visible, and you could imagine that you were looking at a planet completely composed of water. 
But the Pacific is not an unbroken sea. 
Across its blue expanse, there are over 25,000 islands of varying size, many of them thrown up by volcanic eruptions that burst from the lively tectonics of the Pacific Plate. 
Easter Island is at the eastern corner of an area we call the Polynesian Triangle, a vast region of the Pacific Ocean broken by over a thousand volcanic islands. 
Easter Island itself is a loosely triangular shape too, made up of three extinct volcanoes at each of its points. 
The largest of these volcanoes is called Terevaka. 
It's a young volcano bursting out of the sea less than four hundred thousand years ago, its lava gushing out and raising a peak that looms half a kilometre above the ocean. 
When it first erupted, Terevaka's lava pooled so that it joined up to older volcanoes on either side of it, and the landmass that today we call Easter Island was born. 
The people who have lived on Easter Island for centuries call it by the name Tepito ote henua, which translates literally to 'the center of the world'. 
Other names for it are translated as 'the land's end' or 'fragment of the earth.' Today's Polynesians call the island Rapa Nui.
7:10    Rapa Nui is a small island, only about 24 kilometers end-to-end and 12 kilometers wide. 
It's one of the most remote and isolated places on earth. 
From the coasts of Easter Island, it would take 3,200 kilometers to reach the nearest continent of South America, about the distance from Paris to Damascus, and even the nearest inhabited island is over 2,000 kilometers away. 
The Polynesians who first settled the island arrived from the west.
7:47    Sometime before the year 3,000 BC, they had left the mainland of the Asian continent. 
Since that time, these hardy sailors had perfected their craft until they were the most successful ocean-going settlers in history. 
They built large, sturdy canoes with two hulls, in fact, effectively two canoes joined by a deck and with two masts with sails. 
The catamaran design of these ships was incredibly sophisticated, and in fact, they look like a modern sailing boat used for racing. 
They were both stable and fast, and they allowed the Polynesians to gradually settle the entire Pacific Ocean. 
These early settlers navigated the oceans without any physical navigation devices.
8:38    They knew the stars well enough that they could make astonishing calculations about latitude and longitude using only the night sky. 
They didn't write this detailed knowledge down, but used only songs and stories to memorize the properties and positions of the stars, islands, and known sea routes. 
The Polynesians also used the natural world as an aid to their navigation. 
They followed the flight paths of seabirds like the black tern, and this ancient Polynesian sailor song shows the significance of these birds.
9:15    The black tern, the black tern is my bird. 
Burden whom my eyes are gifted with unbounded vision. 
These epic voyages were all the more impressive because the winds in the South Pacific blow westwards against the direction of the Polynesian's expansion. 
To travel these vast distances against the winds, the explorers developed a sailing technique known as tacking where the craft zigzags against a prevailing wind in order to catch some forward motion. 
Storms in the Pacific could be deadly to these early explorers. 
It's been recorded that when a severe typhoon struck, these sailors had a method of surviving that seems unthinkable to a modern sailor; they would actually purposefully flood the hulls of their canoes and because the wooden hulls provided enough flotation, the ship would stay afloat. 
But with most of its body submerged, it would survive being buffeted about in the gale- -force winds. 
While the storm went on, the sailors would climb inside their flooded hulls, keeping their heads above water, and wait for the winds to pass. 
There has long been a debate about when exactly these intrepid Polynesian adventurers arrived on Easter Island.
10:43    It was long assumed that they had arrived sometime in the fourth or fifth centuries, but studies of the islanders' language and radiocarbon dating recently revised that estimate to somewhere around the eighth century, and even more modern analysis has pushed that date forward even further. 
Many scientists today believe that Rapa Nui wasn't settled until sometime around the Year 1200 AD. 
At this time around the world, the Mongol armies of Genghis Khan were finalizing their conquest of Northern China.
11:20    The notorious Fourth Crusade, headed for Jerusalem, instead sacked and burned the Christian capital of Constantinople.
11:29    An exotic import from Arabia called sugar was mentioned for the first time in an English text, and on the other side of the world, in the middle of the vast expanse of the Pacific, a small band of Polynesian sailors landed their boats on the shores of a new land. 
An ancient piece of Rapa Nui folklore credits the settlement of the island to a Polynesian king called Hotu Matua. 
In Hiva, Hau Maka had a dream in which his spirit traveled to a far country, looking for a new home for his King Hotu. 
His spirit arrived at three small islands, and another with a larger one with a crater on the southwest corner. 
The island was the eighth or last island in the dim twilight of the rising sun. 
The spirit traveled counter-clockwise around the island, naming twenty-eight places including Anakena, a landing place on the north coast of the island and future residence of the king. 
When Hau Maka awoke, he told his brother Hua Tava about the dream. 
After hearing about the dream, Hotu Matua ordered Hau Maka to send some young men to explore the island. 
Hotu Matua told his two sons to build a canoe and search for the island of Hau Maka's dream. 
So, the seven men left in a canoe stocked with yams, sweet potatoes, bananas, and other foods. 
They left on the 25th day of April and arrived on the first day of June, a voyage of five weeks.
13:14    These settlers brought everything that was required for the traditional Polynesian lifestyle. 
They brought their most crucial foods; bananas, a root vegetable called taro with broad elephant ear leaves, as well as sweet potatoes and sugar cane. 
They also brought saplings of the paper mulberry tree, the fibers of which they used to weave clothes. 
They brought animals with them too, although only those small enough to be transported.
13:47    They brought chickens and also the Polynesian rat which was an everyday food for common people. 
This was an entire ecological system in-waiting, packed up in the holes of their canoes, optimized for transport, and ready to be transplanted to a new land. 
Hotu Matua may not have realized it, but his arrival on Easter Island was of profound significance, not just for him and his people but for all of mankind. 
That's because Easter Island was the final stop on a journey of sixty thousand years that had taken mankind out of Africa, through Asia, and onto the Americas. 
The final chapter of this journey was the gradual colonization of the Polynesian islands, and Easter Island was the furthest and final piece of uninhabited land. 
Mankind's journey out of Africa ended on the shores of Easter Island and with that step, a new phase of humanity's history began.
15:02    I think it's worth noting at this point that apart from the evidence we can find in the archaeological record, we have essentially two sources of information about the history of Easter Island, and each of them has their problems. 
Firstly, there were the accounts of European visitors to the island, like the Dutchman Roggeveen. 
These accounts come down to us either in the form of ships' logs or in the form of memoirs written down when these explorers returned to their homelands. 
The biggest problem for researchers of Rapa Nui's history is that these early visitors to the island left behind accounts that are extremely limited in their content and their reliability, and that sometimes directly contradict each other. 
Most of them stayed for only a few days.
15:51    They rarely wandered far from their landing spot and they commented little on the culture, language, or society of the islanders. 
In the debate that has raged over what happened on Easter Island, many writers have tried to use a selective reading of these accounts in order to support their own favored argument, and that's something we should be very careful about as we go forward and assess the evidence. 
But these written records do provide us with some useful information; at times, as you'll see, they give us fixed points in time around which we can build our story. 
The second source of information is the oral folklore of the islanders themselves. 
This was passed down by word-of-mouth through the generations, often in the form of songs and stories. 
This can give us a wonderful sense of how the islanders view their own history and their own sense of identity. 
But this source of information can also be very difficult to rely on when trying to sort historical fact from fiction. 
The different strands of the island's folklore is also often extremely contradictory and the reason for that isn't hard to imagine. 
Detailed observations of these songs and stories weren't written down until the 1880s and by that time, the culture of Rapa Nui had already undergone drastic change. 
By this point, they'd been in contact with the outside world for more than 150 years and their population was reduced to a tiny fraction of what it had once been.
17:37    Now, only a few survivors passed down the stories they remembered and to add another level of confusion, these stories were written down by early European explorers who may have mistranslated, as well as added and embellished elements that didn't exist in the original. 
One example of this is the question of the name of the island's first king who we've already mentioned, Hotu Matua. 
But his name is so similar to the folk hero of another nearby island, Mangareva, that some researchers have questioned whether this name isn't a foreign import to Easter Island. 
If we can't trust this important detail to have been faithfully transmitted, perhaps we can't be too sure about the rest.
18:23    These stories, refracted through these various mirrors, are now connected to the true facts of the distant past by only the most fragile of threads. 
This is all to make it very clear to you that the history of Easter Island is not even close to being a settled matter and it often relies on fragmentary and contradictory evidence. 
Today, new research has begun to challenge the familiar narrative we've all grown up with, and we will have to deal with a lot of uncertainty as we forge ahead through the tragic story of this most remarkable island.
19:06    According to tradition, the first Polynesian settlers arrived on Easter Island at a point called Anakena, a white coral sand beach on the north of the island that forms a natural harbor. 
It's worth mentioning that the landscape these first settlers would have seen was very different to the one we see today on Rapa Nui. 
The bare, grassy slopes first spied by Roggeveen in the 18th century and which we know from images today, would have been nowhere to be seen. 
In fact, they would have been covered by a thick forest of tropical palm trees. 
If you dig down into the earth of Easter Island today, you can still see the hollow molds left by the roots of these trees. 
Studies of these root molds, as well as pollen analysis, shows that when humans arrived on Rapa Nui, the island was home to over 21 species of trees.
20:04    Some of these were large, including at least 3 which grew up to 15 meters or more. 
One species of palm tree, the Easter Island or Rapa Nui Palm, may even have been among the largest species of palm tree in the world. 
This now-extinct tree, known as Paschalococos, seems to have once been the most numerous species on the island. 
Its closest relative today, Jubaea Chilensis, or the Chilean Wine Palm, can reach heights of over 25 meters, its bulbous trunk the thickest in the world, reaching a diameter of more than a metre. 
The soil of Easter Island has never been rich but the forest would have provided a small amount of food for the new settlers; palm nuts, and fruits, too, along with the birds in the trees that could be trapped.
21:01    Luckily for archaeologists, the sand of Anakena beach, the site of that first settlement, is particularly good at preserving bone and human remains.
21:12    Because of this, skeletons examined here have given scientists insight into the lives of the ancient Rapa Nui. 
Studies have shown that as well as these plant crops, people supplemented their diet with a mix of marine animals including dolphins they trapped in the Bay of Anakena, seals, sea turtles, and fish that they caught with hooks carved from bone. 
In fact, bone chemistry analysis has shown that the people here got about half of their diet from the sea. 
They cooked all of these foods in earth ovens known as umu, cavities dug into the ground which then had burning grass and leaves placed on top of them so that the heat radiated downwards. 
These people were ingenious and inherited knowledge from their ancestors. 
They made textiles from the fibers of the paper mulberry tree and spun rope from a tree known as the Hau tree.
22:11    With this healthy and diverse mix of foodstuffs and resources, their settlement became incredibly successful. 
From there, using slash-and-burn agricultural methods, the original settlers spread quickly across the small land mass of the island, and they soon began to clear the forest in order to plant their crops until the whole of Rapa Nui was fully populated with around 3,000 people. 
Slowly, that primeval palm forest began to disappear from Easter Island.
22:49    I think at this point, it's worth running you through that traditional story of what happened on Easter Island. 
It has been the dominant narrative about this island for decades, perhaps even centuries. 
It was begun by early European explorers, propagated by Victorian and 20th century anthropologists, and finally popularized by authors like the popular science writer Jared Diamond, and you might find it familiar. 
In this narrative, the inhabitants of Easter Island were the architects of their own demise. 
The story goes that their population boomed until the island could no longer support it. 
They cut down their trees to use as firewood for construction material and to use as rollers to transport their enormous statues. 
The loss of trees on the island resulted in an ecological collapse that destroyed the fertility of the soil and the productive potential of the island fell apart. 
Along with the collapse of the islands ecology, the complex and centralized society that had built the hundreds of stone statues on the coast began to collapse, too. 
Resources became scarce, starvation ran rampant, and this led to a period of violent civil war. 
Shortly before the arrival of the Europeans in 1722, the whole of Rapa Nui society had come apart and only a few thousand survivors were left. 
Jared Diamond, perhaps the greatest champion of this theory today, puts it bluntly. 
In just a few centuries, the people of Easter Island wiped out their forests, drove their plants and animals to extinction, and saw their complex society spiral into chaos. 
This story has a widespread appeal for a number of reasons. 
In the latter half of the 20th century, as we became increasingly concerned about our own society's destructive impact on our environment, the story of Easter Island became irresistible as an example of the fate that might befall us if we fail to respect the environment around us. 
The stone statues, too, have proved irresistible as emblems of human folly, our desire to always build bigger and better than our neighbors. 
In his book, Jared Diamond even makes the comparison to his neighbors in Hollywood building ever bigger and better mansions in an effort to prove their status. 
The islanders was so obsessed with these statues, the narrative goes, that they cut down all their trees to transport them.
25:40    This single-minded obsession drove them to starvation, then cannibalism, and finally to the edge of extinction. 
But there are a number of problems with this narrative, a number of seriously questionable assumptions, and over the course of this episode I'm going to try to unpick three of the most glaring of these assumptions so that you can assess the evidence for yourself. 
Firstly, there's the assumption that the Easter Islanders deforested their island due to greed, overpopulation, or even a maniacal obsession with statue-building. 
Secondly, there's the assumption that the loss of the forest led to a societal collapse, and thirdly, there's the assumption that Easter Island society collapsed at all, at least before contact with the outside world.
26:36    As we'll see, each of these assumptions has significant problems. 
Once we've dealt with them, we can get down to what actually happened to decimate the islanders of Rapa Nui, to strip the island of its plant life, and to leave those famous stone statues moldering on the lone grassy hills of Easter Island.
27:06    Virtually as soon as they arrived on the island, probably around the year 1200, the islanders began carving the monuments that would one day make them famous around the world. 
Stone statues are common on islands across the Polynesian world, but no other island can compete with the size of the Easter Island statues or with the incredible number carved. 
These statues are called Moai. 
The Moai are known for their large, broad noses and strong chins, along with rectangle-shaped ears and deep eye slits. 
For the Easter Islanders, these statues were what they called aringa ora ata tepuna, that is the living faces of the holy ancestors. 
These are stone representations of the islanders that have gone before. 
Of the Moai that were successfully moved into place, the vast majority stand on the coast of the island on monolithic stone platforms called Ahu. 
While most people's eyes are drawn by the statues, these Ahu are themselves impressive undertakings. 
They are built of enormous stones cut so precisely that they fit together in a perfect jigsaw, with not even enough room to fit a razor blade between the stones. 
The largest of them, Ahu Tongariki, holds 15 Moai lined up in perfect order.
28:38    Nearly all Moai stand with their backs to the sea, staring inland over the fields and hills of Rapa Nui with their deep, expressive eyes.
28:50    Almost all of the statues are carved from a volcanic stone known as tuff. 
Tuff is formed when ash from a volcanic eruption falls thickly on the ground and is then slowly compacted into solid rock. 
Tuff is relatively soft and easy to carve, so it has been used for construction since ancient times. 
It commonly occurs in Italy, for instance, and the Romans often used it in their buildings. 
Most of the Moai statues were carved in a quarry on the outer cliff edge of the Rano Raraku crater. 
This quarry is an eerie sight today. 
Here and there, the faces of half-finished giants still peer out of the stone. 
The Rano Raraku crater is 700 meters across, formed of ash and volcanic tuff thrown up in an ancient explosion and ringed by cliffs 160 metres high. 
The wide volcanic bowl is one of the three places on Easter Island where fresh water pools to form a lake. 
Here, a kind of bullrushes called totora grow on the water's edge, nodding in the breeze, and the Rapa Nui people once collected them to weave thatched roofs for their houses. 
But it's on the outer slopes of the crater's cliffs that the truly important activity took place. 
Here, the islanders chipped their statues directly from the bedrock using a kind of stone chisel known as a toki that was made of dense basalt, perfectly suited for carving the softer volcanic tuff. 
This would have been incredibly slow work. 
Work that might take a modern craftsman with a steel chisel one hour might take an Easter Islander with a stone toki a whole day or two days to complete. 
Although estimates vary, it's thought that an entire statue could take over a year for a team of 12 people to carve. 
One fascinating aspect of this quarry is that there are a huge number of incomplete Moai abandoned here, 397 in total. 
That's nearly half of the island's total population of 887, and this shows just how difficult the carving of these statues was. 
These abandoned Moai have been discarded for different reasons, some more obvious than others. 
On some statues it's clear that the workmen dis- -covered a seam of hard rock somewhere on the Moai's body which would have been virtually impossible to carve with their stone tools. 
Others have obvious flaws or cracks in them, while some Moai have fallen over while raising them. 
Other Moai simply seemed to have been too ambitious in size; the largest of these, nicknamed El Gigante, is nearly 22 meters in height.
31:59    That's twice the height of a telephone pole or the size of a six story building. 
El Gigante, still lying on his back in the cliff face, is almost twice the size of any Moai ever completed. 
This enormous statue would have weighed an estimated 270 tons and it's hard to imagine how the islanders ever intended to move it. 
We might imagine an ambitious ancient craftsman overseeing the carving of this vast statue, determined to create the largest Moai that the island has ever seen, or perhaps as we'll find out later, the islanders believed they had to summon a truly enormous protective spirit to defend their island against a threat. 
To get a sense for how these people must have felt about these statues, let's imagine ourselves into the role of a team of Moai carvers during the Golden Age of Rapa Nui statue- #NAME?
33:04    carried a great deal of responsibility. 
While you were carving a Moai, you weren't working in the fields, and so your community was investing in your work. 
There must have been a lot of pride tied up in the creation of these statues, too. 
Before the carving could even begin, there would likely have been ceremonies and rites that had to take place, chants and incantations designed to summon the protective spirit of the ancestor to inhabit the stone. 
There's an apocryphal quote often attributed to the sculptor Michelangelo. 
Every block of stone has a statue inside it and it is the task of the sculptor to discover it.
33:45    Whether or not he actually said this, this must have been something like what the people of Rapa Nui felt as the months passed and the great statue, its head and arms and body, slowly materialized from the cliff face in front of them.
34:09    The days would have been hard. 
Many traditional Rapa Nui working songs survived today, and we can imagine the workers singing while they chipped away at the cliff. 
One surviving folk song even derives its rhythm from the striking together of two stones, emulating the sounds of the toki tools napping away at the statue. 
Here it is, recorded especially for this podcast by children from the Toki School of Music on Easter Island.
34:44    The workers' hands must have been covered in the blackish dust of the stone, and they would take breaks to eat meals of sweet potato and taro along with the chicken, baked white in earth ovens nearby. 
After much arduous work, the whole outline of the Moai would be carved out. 
They would then deepen the cuts and hollow out the cliff behind the statue, too, clambering into the narrow space and lying on their bellies as they carved. 
But even with the back carved out, the statue would still be attached to the bedrock below with a narrow keel that ran the length of its spine. 
So, the final and most painstaking stage of the process would begin. 
They would gather up stones and earth in order to support the Moai so that it didn't fall, and then this spine of stone would slowly be chipped away. 
It must have been an incredible moment when that last stone umbilical cord was cut. 
It was the culmination of so much time and sweat of course, but it must have sent shivers down their spines, too, as the great statue of their ancestor broke free of its stony slumber and was finally filled with a living spirit. 
It's likely that more ceremonies surrounded this moment; the chanting of holy men who wore white plugs in their ears, and the beating of drums. 
Over what must have been days, the Moai was edged clear of its quarry resting place with huge teams of workers pulling ropes spun from the Hau tree. 
When the statue was clear, they slid it down the grassy slope of the volcano so that it could be stood upright at the bottom of the slope. 
This was one of the most dangerous parts of the Moai's journey, as the great number of cracked and abandoned statues on the slope below the quarry shows us. 
They look like an army of stony wanderers marching down from the volcano. 
Somewhat ironically, these abandoned statues, buried up to their necks in the refuse from the quarry, form some of the most iconic images of Easter Island today, more familiar to the layman than the completed ones that stand on the Ahu platforms on the coast. 
This is why people talk about the stone heads of Easter Island, ignoring the fact that most of the Moai have bodies. 
At the bottom of the hill, the workmen would raise the Moai up to a standing position so they could finish carving the details on its back using soft pumice to wear it smooth. 
Then they would prepare to transport the statue into its final resting place on its Ahu. 
The carvers could wipe the sweat from their foreheads and share congratulations, but this was just the beginning of another long and arduous chapter in the Moai's journey.
37:49    At this point, I think it's worth noting that we don't actually know for sure how the ancient islanders moved these vast statues. 
This question was something that obsessed early visitors to the island. 
They looked around at the seemingly barren landscape of Rapa Nui, at its grassy slopes seemingly devoid of large trees, and asked how a people without metal tools, pulleys, or wheels could transport nearly 500 of these vast statues. 
The largest successfully transported Moai, nicknamed Paro, was 10 metres tall which is longer than a London bus. 
It's estimated that this statue weighed about 82 tons, heavier than a Boeing 737 aircraft when fully loaded with passengers and fuel. 
The ancient islanders would sometimes transport these statues for distances of 20 kilometers across the island's rough, undulating terrain. 
It's a question that has been asked of the islanders since Europeans first arrived. 
How did your ancestors move these statues? For a long time, the islanders would always give the same reply; they would simply say they walked. 
Foreign visitors would always roll their eyes at this answer. 
They assumed this must be a piece of local folklore, a kind of magical thinking that imagined the statues to be the living spirits of the ancestors. 
Some may even have thought that the Rapa Nui were making fun of them, but researchers today have discovered that there may be more truth to this legend than it seems. 
Early archaeologists believed that the Rapa Nui moved the great stone statues into place using logs as rollers. 
In 1998, archaeologist Jo Anne van Tilburg successfully tested this theory using a large number of hard wood rollers to transport a statue for a short distance.
39:58    But recent research has cast doubt on this theory and proposed an incredible alternate possibility. 
The key to discovering how the statues were actually moved lies in the ones that never made it to their intended locations.
40:20    Littered across Easter Island are the sad shapes of statues that broke during their transportation. 
Only about 1/5 of the Moai ever carved would reach their destination on the Ahu platforms, and these total about 200. 
The rest, some 700 more, were either abandoned in the quarry or along the roads. 
Stone heads are cracked from bodies, decapitated statues lie moldering and moss-covered in the long grass. 
For the ancient islanders, this must have been a heartrending sight. 
A whole team had worked for a year or more, then successfully slid this statue down the slope of the volcano. 
Then, somewhere along its journey it had cracked, and the broken statue would have to be abandoned by the side of the road.
41:12    These so-called road Moai have a number of interesting features. 
For instance, we know that the islanders waited to carve the eyes of the Moai until the statues were in place on their platforms. 
This may have had a ceremonial purpose which has parallels around the world. 
For instance, in Sri Lanka when new statues of the Buddha are built, the eyes are always the last part to be painted, and only the painter is allowed in the shrine room while doing their work.
41:44    But a team of archaeologists led by Terry Hunt and Carl Lipo also found something else interesting about these abandoned statues; they noticed that when abandoned road Moai were found on uphill paths they usually lay on their backs, and when the cracked statues were abandoned on downhill paths, they usually lay on their fronts. 
On flat ground, it was more like 50/50. 
So, a theory began to emerge. 
Is it possible that the statues were transported upright? Once this detail had been noticed, other details about the road Moai seemed to fall into place. 
For instance, the road Moai had bulkier lower-halfs and rounder bellies. 
This had puzzled archaeologists for a long time, but Hunt and Lipo's theory seemed to make sense of this. 
The islanders were designing the Moai in two phases. 
In the first, the transportation phase, the Moai were bottom-heavy like a bowling pin. 
Once it had been rocked into place on its platform, it was then carved into its more slender and elegant final shape. 
So, Lipo and Hunt proposed that the statues were rocked back and forth by teams of islanders with ropes so that the statues actually seemed to walk over the ground. 
Their team caused an international sensation when they were able to successfully walk a scale model of a Moai cast in concrete, rocking it back and forth along the road with three teams holding ropes. 
In this way, the statue could literally walk down the path just as the ancient folklore recounted.
43:34    The team managed to move the statue at a rate of about a hundred meters in an hour, meaning it could have walked around a kilometer in a day. 
If this is indeed how the statues were moved, it must have been an incredible sight to see. 
The tallest Moai weighed over 80 tonnes and each one of the statues footsteps would have thundered on the earth so that it really seemed like a giant was stamping its way towards the platform. 
There would have likely been a huge amount of ceremonial activity around the walking of these statues, too, people coming from all over the island to watch singing and dancing and all kinds of activity. 
For the days and weeks it took to transport one of these statues, it would have really felt like a god had come down to earth.
44:24    I love the romance and imagination behind Lipo and Hunt's theory, and I think they build a convincing case that this was indeed how the statues were moved.
44:36    But you might ask, well, why does it matter how the statues were moved? Isn't this a minor detail of the story of this society's collapse?
44:46    Well actually, this question has come to take on an enormous significance for the mystery of what happened on Easter Island. 
The traditional narrative, if you remember, was that the Rapa Nui islanders became so obsessed with building their statues that they destroyed their environment to do so. 
The islanders cut down all their trees, the theory says, in order to use as scaffolds and rollers to transport them. 
If this was the case, then each statue must have taken hundreds if not thousands of trees to transport, and this seemed the obvious answer to why the island was so deforested, why its ecology collapsed and its society followed. 
But if Lipo and Hunt were correct and the statues were walked into place, then very little wood was needed, and the whole narrative of the Moai causing the collapse of the island's ecology comes into question.
45:42    So, the whole mystery of Easter Island seems to hinge on this question of whether the statues rolled or whether they walked. 
So, what do we know about the loss of trees on Easter Island? One thing we can say for sure; the subtropical palm forest that the first settlers found on the island wouldn't long survive the arrival of humans. 
One of the earliest casualties of this deforestation was the largest of the island's trees, the Rapa Nui Palm. 
If we want to guess at how this enormous tree grew, we can look at its closest surviving relative, the Chilean Wine Palm. 
This tree takes 50 years to reach its full height and until then, it doesn't produce a single fruit. 
This slow- -growing and slow-reproducing tree would have been one of the most affected by the arrival of humans. 
Some theorists, Jared Diamond included, have argued that the Easter Island Palm would have been in high demand for use as rollers to transport the giant Moai across the island. 
But experiments have found that the palm would have been exceptionally badly-suited for this job. 
The hard outer shell of the palm trunk conceals a soft center that would have been instantly crushed beneath the heavy stone statues.
47:08    Diamond has even argued that the palm may have been cut down in order to build large canoes, but nowhere else in Polynesia are canoes built from palm trunks, and they would be very unsuitable for this purpose. 
So, what did happen to Easter Island's trees? Well, undoubtedly, much of the forest was cut down by humans but they didn't do this unconsciously or foolishly. 
They did it for the same reason that people in Iceland or England cut down their forests, because they were farmers.
47:46    The Rapa Nui, like all Polynesians, farmed energy-rich foods like sweet potatoes, taro, and sugarcane. 
These abundant foods were vastly more productive than whatever food they could have gathered from the forest. 
So, much of this deforestation was controlled and conscious, and actually improved the quality of these people's lives. 
But that isn't to say there wasn't an ecological collapse on Easter Island.
48:14    Pollen analysis shows that virtually all large trees were lost from the island within a matter of centuries and by far the largest factor appears to have been something very small, that's one of the animal companions that the original settlers brought with them; the Polynesian rat. 
Wherever these pacific explorers went, they brought animals with them. 
Each Polynesian island got some combination of these four animals; pigs, dogs, chickens, and rats. 
On Rapa Nui, only rats and chickens were introduced. 
Some argued that these rats may have stowed away on the canoes just as they do on larger vessels, but rat has actually been a foodstuff that Polynesians have relied on throughout history. 
It was never a delicacy and seems to have been considered a food of the common people, as rat bones are rarely found in the rubbish dumps of high-status houses.
49:16    However, they were a good and reliable source of protein on long voyages. 
I can't speak to personal experience, but accounts I've read say that rat tastes oily and gamey, a little like rabbit. 
Another advantage to this source of food is that rats reproduce incredibly quickly. 
Once the Polynesian rat was introduced to Easter Island, its spread would have been unstoppable. 
The millions of giant palm trees covering the island would have provided them with an almost unlimited supply of their favorite food, palm nuts. 
Recent lab studies have shown that the reproductive potential of rats under these ideal conditions can be enormous. 
In fact, the rat population could have doubled every 47 days until they reached a population of up to 3 million, and the island was completely overrun. 
The rats would have quickly eaten the seeds and palm nuts from the trees, preventing the forests from regenerating.
50:21    In Anakena beach and certain caves, archeologists have found the earliest remnants of palm nut shells showing the tooth marks of rats. 
As well as damaging the forests, rats would also have eaten the eggs of seabirds, finishing off those the islanders hadn't trapped and eaten. 
Since the seabirds fertilized the soil with their droppings, this would have spelled disaster for the biodiversity of Easter Island. 
But the question is, did this loss of trees caused a societal collapse on Rapa Nui? The answer to that question is almost certainly not.
51:07    This isn't to say that the loss of palm forest on Rapa Nui didn't present a number of challenges to the islanders. 
By around the Year 1650, pollen studies show that the deforestation of Easter Island was complete. 
Without tree cover, the ocean winds could now blow right across the island. 
The wind and storms threatened to blow away the topsoil, and salt spray from the sea effectively salted the earth in coastal regions, damaging the soil further. 
But in all cases, the Rapa Nui islanders reacted to these challenges with ingenuity and creativity. 
They transformed their island not into a desolate wasteland but into an astonishingly effective system of gardens, orchards, and farmland. 
In fact, archaeologists have found evidence of areas of the island where the islanders planted groves of palm trees and cultivated them. 
Around this time, they also began farming using a technique known as rock mulching. 
This involved laying rock beds around the island which prevented the soil from washing or blowing away. 
It also reduced the amount of water evaporated by the sun and increased the amount of nutrients available to growing plants as the rainwater flowed over the rocks and carried minerals to their roots. 
Rock mulching has been used by cultures around the world who live in harsh, water- poor environments. 
It's been observed in the Negev Desert in Israel, the pebbled fields of Langzhou in China, the ash fields of the Canary Islands, and the fields of the Anasazi culture in New Mexico. 
The Rapa Nui set about the task of rock mulching with the same great energy that they used to carve and transport the Moai. 
They would ultimately cover half the landmass of their island in rock gardens of this kind. 
It was an enormous task. 
It's been calculated that over the 400 years that the practice was engaged in, it would have taken over 150 men working daily to construct these vast assemblages made up of billions of stones. 
There's strong evidence that the Rapa Nui people also took advantage of the deep underground caverns of the island.
53:33    The caves of Easter Island were formed by lava tubes which developed during the volcanic eruptions that raised the islands out of the sea. 
When lava flows out of the mouth of a volcano, it forms vast underground rivers as the lava on the surface cools and hardens into rock. 
When the eruption ends and the lava stops flowing, the tubes drain their lava, leaving enormous caverns that look as though a monstrous worm has eaten its way through the rock. 
These tubes are as wide as a subway tunnel and Easter Island has one of the largest systems of volcanic caves in the world. 
The islanders' relationship with these caves goes back to the first known moment of their history, as this piece of Rapa Nui folklore about King Hotu Matua shows. 
The explorers went to the west side of the island and discovered a surfing spot. 
They rode a wave to the right and called the place where they landed Hanga Roa. 
They rode a wave to the left and landed at Apina Iti. 
They caught more waves, than went ashore and rested in a cave at Pu Pakakina. 
Some of these caves can stretch for three or four kilometers into the island's rock. 
As the forests of Rapa Nui retreated, its people increasingly turned to these caves to provide cover for their crops. 
They cultivated vast underground gardens where they could grow sweet potatoes and yams to supplement their diet. 
They also constructed circular rock walls called manavai that could be as much as six feet tall and where they could grow a variety of crops. 
These kept plants safe from the destructive elements of the weather, reduced the amount of water runoff, and concentrated nutrients.
55:27    Archeologists have identified over 2,500 of these rock gardens around the island, but this is likely only a fraction of the original number. 
Studies have shown that even today, with no active maintenance being done on them, these rings of rock are still operating as designed by the ancient gardeners. 
Levels of phosphorus and potassium, crucial minerals for plants, are much higher inside the manavai than outside, with the concentrations being sometimes two or three times as high. 
Simply put, with their rock gardening techniques, the Rapa Nui were able to make the land much more productive after the forest was cleared than it was before. 
Some of this great agricultural potential is hinted at in the accounts of the first Dutch sailors to land on the island, although I will once again caution about trusting too much in these accounts. 
Although Roggeveen believed Rapa Nui to be a treeless, sandy wasteland from a distance, when he actually landed on the island, he was surprised to find it a productive landscape. 
We found it not only not sandy; on the contrary, exceedingly fruitful, producing bananas, potatoes, sugar cane of remarkable thickness, and many other kinds of the fruits of the earth. 
This place, as far as its rich soil and good climate are concerned, such that it might be made into an earthly paradise.
56:59    Another of Roggeveen's officers, a man named Karl Friedrich Behrens, seems also to contradict this account of a treeless island and reported on a wide variety of uses the islanders had for palm leaves. 
They gave us palm branches as peace offerings. 
Their houses were set up on wooden stakes, daubed over with luting and covered with palm leaves. 
In fact, Behrens paints a remarkably positive impression of the island overall. 
This island is a suitable and convenient place at which to obtain refreshment, as all the country is under cultivation and we saw in the distance whole tracts of woodland.
57:39    Roggeveen himself also witnessed cultivated groves of fruit trees on the island. 
It was now deemed advisable to go to the other side of the island, the principal place of their plantations and fruit trees, for all the things they brought to us of that kind were fetched from that quarter. 
So, here, a relatively clear picture is beginning to emerge. 
We can say for sure that the arrival of humans on Rapa Nui resulted in the disappearance of most of its forest, but this is true of virtually every forested island on earth after the arrival of people. 
No one has yet been able to draw a clear causative link between the loss of the forests on Rapa Nui and the collapse of so-called complex society. 
In fact, studies done on the skeletons of islanders from around this time showed that they suffered from less malnutrition than the average European.
58:38    This all seems to be backed up by Roggeveen's account of his first visit to the island. 
It's clear from his account that when he arrived, the Rapa Nui islanders weren't starving. 
They didn't make any attempt to beg for food from the newcomers. 
In fact, they were much more interested in the Europeans' hats.
58:59    One brave islander even climbed through a porthole on Roggeveen's ship to steal a tablecloth. 
But there's no account of them stealing the Europeans' food. 
In fact, it was the Dutch, malnutritioned on a diet of salt meat and hard tack after weeks at sea, who begged the islanders for food, giving them cloth and linen in exchange for 60 chickens and 30 bunches of bananas. 
None of this sounds like the behavior of a people living on the edge of starvation.
59:31    With multiple abundant sources of food, alongside the efficient use of the land around them, archaeological and written evidence begins to make that popular scenario of starvation and even cannibalism look patently absurd.
59:50    Part and parcel of the starvation narrative is the assumption that the society of the island descended into a period of brutal conflict once resources ran scarce, but if resources were abundant, can we also question this assumption? The folklore of the islanders does record a period of warfare, after which the Moai-building culture faded into obscurity. 
But as we've seen, this folklore can be unreliable at the best of times. 
Much more reliable is the archaeological record. 
When a period of conflict occurs in such an environment, the evidence is usually hard to miss. 
One great example of this is the island of Fiji, another Pacific island 7,000 kilometers away. 
In Fiji, archaeologists have found the remains of strong hilltop forts and fortified towns, all pointing to a period of warfare. 
In Hawaii, it's well-documented that chiefs fought each other in large battles featuring hundreds of warriors armed with clubs. 
The signs of war in the archaeological record aren't difficult to spot; increased number of weapons, increased building of defensive structures, and skeletal remains that bear the marks of violence. 
First, let's look at the evidence of weapons on Rapa Nui. 
The islanders did make blades from the black volcanic glass obsidian. 
Obsidian forms in the vents of volcanic eruptions when lava reaches the surface and cools quickly, forming a glassy material that is brittle but has exceptionally sharp edges. 
In fact, obsidian blades have been measured to be up to a thousand times sharper than a steel scalpel. 
The Rapa Nui gave their blades names depending on their shape; Fish Tail, Rat Spine, Banana Leaf are some examples. 
Some writers have argued that the large amount of these blades found points to a mass production of weaponry and a period of conflict. 
But studies of these blades have found that their edges were mostly covered in vegetable matter; that's sweet potato and taro. 
They were found in the highest concentrations in the area of the islanders' rock gardens where they were most likely used for everyday tasks like the preparation of food. 
Studies of skeletons have also seemed to undermine this picture of conflict. 
In a historical zone of conflict, we would expect to see skeletons missing their heads, for instance, or skulls with arrowheads inside, broken bones, and bones bearing scratches from blades glancing off them. 
But studies of skeletal remains on Easter Island have shown that the islanders were, in fact, remarkable for their mostly peaceful existence. 
Only around 2% of the skeletons studied have been found to have suffered trauma from blunt and cutting weapons, and this isn't a large proportion of the population. 
I do think here it's also worth remembering Behrens's observation that the islanders were unarmed when they first came to meet the Dutch explorers. 
In the search for defensive structures, archeologists have also found themselves frustrated.
63:17    The small Pacific island of Rapa Iti, for instance, is five times smaller than Easter Island and yet it has no fewer than 14 hilltop fortresses. 
On Rapa Iti, life on the island actually did descend into a nightmare of violence and civil war, and the signs of this are hard to miss. 
Fortifications on Rapa Iti involved watchtowers and walls, ditches, and wooden palisade fences. 
We find weapons here and human remains bearing the marks of violence, but on Easter Island no such fortifications exist. 
One feature known as the Poike ditch was long assumed to be a defensive structure, but recent investigations have shown that it's actually a natural feature caused by the collision of two lava flows. 
Some walls built at the entrances to caves have also been used as evidence of the islanders fortifying themselves, but there's little other evidence of the caves being used as military strongholds. 
In fact, they seem to be more commonly used as hiding places. 
So, another one of our assumptions about Easter Island has been taken away. 
Now we're left having to explain how Rapa Nui's culture could actually have been less violent than many other comparable societies, and certainly less violent than any city of Europe at the time. 
We may never know what decides whether a small community will descend into a violent hell like Rapa Iti or whether they will work together to maintain the peace like on Rapa Nui. 
Some have suggested that the Rapa Nui islanders all descended from that first colonisation attempt would have had many family relations between tribes, and so it may have been unthinkable to escalate conflict beyond the occasional feud or skirmish. 
When a rival chief is also the husband of your wife's sister's aunt, for instance, you might try to avoid excessive conflict and reach for peaceful compromises. 
That is, if you want to avoid a frosty atmosphere at your dinner table.
65:31    On a small island, word travels fast and it doesn't pay to be viewed as overly aggressive. 
Some historians have even argued that the construction of the Moai themselves may have helped prevent conflict by allowing the island's different communities to compete for dominance in a non-violent way.
65:53    Another way this may have occurred is through an incredible ritual known as the bird man competition.
66:08    The later history of the island is dominated by the cult of a mysterious figure known as the tangata manu or the bird man. 
Cave paintings on Easter Island show this ceremonial figure with the body of a man but the head and wings of a bird. 
Each year, the men of Rapa Nui took part in a ceremony that allowed them to become the human embodiment of this figure for the next year. 
It was a test of strength and daring that is astonishing to even contemplate today.
66:43    The contestants who competed to become the bird man had a simple enough task. 
Off the southwest coast of Rapa Nui there is a small cluster of islands, and one of these is a rocky outcrop known as Moto Nui which is home to several species of nesting birds. 
Among these is the black tern which we've already seen held a mystical significance for Polynesian sailors. 
These birds seem to be gifted with a magical ability to lead sailors home, and it's not hard to see how they would have assumed a powerful religious significance.
67:21    The bird man contest took place in the spring, during the laying season of the black terns. 
Young men who wanted to become that year's bird man would have to swim out to the rocky island of Moto Nui, a distance of about a kilometer, through choppy seas and powerful currents. 
Once they reached the island, they had to climb up through the flocks of cackling sea birds and search through their nests, looking for the first egg of the season. 
Sometimes they would have to wait there for days, but when they found their precious prize, they had to swim all the way back to Rapa Nui. 
Then, dripping with cold saltwater, they had to climb the sheer 300 meter cliff. 
The first man to complete this incredible triathlon event would be crowned the bird man.
68:18    It's unclear how much power this figure actually had, but in terms of status there was no higher honor. 
Allowing men to battle it out in this test of strength every year may have played a role in reducing the violence of the island. 
So, on Easter Island, the evidence seems to suggest that there was no starvation, there was no widespread warfare. 
So, you might be left asking did their society even collapse at all? The answer to that is yes, but not when you think it did. 
For early European explorers, there was no greater mystery than what they called the riddle of Easter Island.
69:05    The French seafarer and artist Pierre Loti wrote about it in the 19th century.
69:12    There exists in the midst of the great ocean, in a region where nobody goes, a mysterious and isolated island. 
The island is planted with monstrous, great statues, the work of I don't know what race, today degenerate or vanished, its great remains an enigma. 
We've actually encountered this kind of thinking a number of times over the course of this series. 
When European explorers discovered the ruins of past civilizations, they often found it hard to believe that so-called primitive people had a hand in their construction.
69:53    Whether it's assuming that the ruins of Angkor were built by the Romans or that the Mayan ruins of Tikal were built by the citizens of Atlantis, European writers have often struggled to believe that the indigenous people of other lands were capable of great constructions. 
This kind of thinking follows a circular logic; only a so-called advanced civilization could have built these things, but the people I see living here don't look like an advanced civilization, therefore these people can't have built these monuments. 
The problems with this kind of thinking are obvious.
70:33    It deceives us into thinking that an advanced civilization can only look like a European civilization; highly centralized and organized, and the very notion of a society being advanced suggests that human progress follows a fixed and inevitable path, and that our way of organizing our societies and economies is the only one. 
It's this kind of thinking that made early explorers of Easter Island look at the advanced rock mulching techniques of the Rapa Nui people and see only a wasteland scattered with rocks. 
This belief system found its logical conclusion in the Norwegian adventurer and archaeologist Thor Heyerdahl. 
Heyerdahl believed that the Polynesian Islands had been populated not by Polynesians hopping the islands from the west, but from people from South America traveling by raft from the east. 
He also believed, curiously, that these people must have been white- -skinned and European in origin. 
He simply couldn't comprehend the idea that other peoples around the world could have developed such artistic and architectural skills. 
So, what appeared to be a puzzle to early European visitors wasn't actually a puzzle at all. 
The stone statues of Easter Island hadn't been built by some vanished ancient culture, but by the people who lived there already and seemed to those Europeans to be so simple. 
This idea of a societal collapse happening on Easter Island before contact with the Europeans has survived into our day, even though it has very little basis in fact. 
But this doesn't mean that a collapse didn't occur on Rapa Nui. 
In fact, the island would soon undergo one of the most dramatic examples of societal and cultural destruction that can be found in history. 
But it wasn't because they cut down the trees. 
There is one event in Easter Island's history that I think encapsulates the complete destruction that would soon rain down on it and its poor, unsuspecting inhabitants. 
That's the toppling in only a few years of every one of the island's statues. 
For centuries, the islanders had loved and revered the Moai that their ancestors had spent generations carving and transporting. 
In 1722, the Dutch sailor Behrens recounts what he saw of the islanders' devotion to these statues. 
They kindle fire in front of certain remarkably tall stone figures they set up, and thereafter squatting on their heels with heads bowed down, they bring the palms of their hands together and alternately raise and lower them. 
But with every subsequent European visitor to the island, this situation seemed to change. 
On the 15th of November, 1770, 48 years after the first European visit, a second arrived.
73:47    Two Spanish ships landed there and spent five days on the island, performing a very thorough survey of its coast. 
They renamed the island Isla de San Carlos and claimed it on behalf of King Charles III of Spain. 
They also ceremoniously erected three wooden crosses and a Spanish flag on a hill.
74:10    When they explored the island, it seems that all of the 200 erected statues were still standing but four years later, the famous British explorer Captain Cook sailed past the island and found a much different situation. 
Cook's diary of Thursday the 17th of March, 1774, gives his account of the impoverished state of the island. 
This is undoubtedly the same island as was seen by Roggeveen in April 1722, although the description given of it by the author of that voyage does by no means correspond with it now. 
No nation will ever contend for the honor of the discovery of Easter Island, as there is hardly an island in the sea which affords less refreshments and conveniences for shipping than it does. 
Nature has hardly provided it with anything fit for man to eat or drink, and the natives are but few and plant no more than sufficient for themselves. 
If Cook's account is to be believed, the population size of Easter Island also seems to have taken a serious hit. 
The inhabitants of this isle, from what we have been able to see of them, do not exceed six or seven hundred souls. 
There's another significant detail, too; Cook noted that the islanders now carried weapons when approaching foreign visitors. 
Their arms are wooden patta pattows and clubs very much like those of New Zealand, and spears about six or eight feet long which are pointed at one end with pieces of black flint. 
But the final tragic detail is that in the four years since the Spanish expedition, virtually all of the standing Moai on the island had been toppled over. 
On the east side near the sea, they met with three platforms of stonework, or rather, the ruins of them. 
On each had stood four of those large statues but they were all fallen down. 
All except one were broken by the fall or in some measure defaced.
76:27    The practice of statue-toppling is called huri mo'ai in the Rapa Nui language, and it continued into the 1830s. 
By 1838, every single coastal Moai had been taken down. 
Now, the only standing statues were those abandoned on the slopes below the quarry at Rano Raraku. 
What happened to make the islanders start to carry weapons? What caused their population to reduce so heavily, and what made them turn so dramatically against their gods? Well, the answer to that may lie in the very event that opened this episode, and which we've returned to a number of times; that's the arrival of three Dutch sails on the horizon on Easter Day, 1722. 
At the site of the enormous ships dropping anchor some way off the coast, the Easter islanders gathered on the shore in astonishment. 
They must have felt how we would feel if a vast alien spaceship were to one day materialize over one of our cities. 
It must have been a mix of fear and wonder, a sense that the world would never quite be the same again. 
They selected one of their number who must have been the bravest of them all. 
It's not unlikely, I think, that he would have been the winner of the most recent bird man competition, the island's champion and protector. 
This man got in his canoe and rode out to meet the strange vessels whose white sails must have looked brilliant and dazzling in the sunlight. 
Perhaps he wouldn't have immediately realized how large they were until he got up close and their prows began to loom over his small canoe. 
When he approached, he saw that there were men on board and he waved to them. 
The Dutch officer, Karl Friedrich Behrens, wrote about this incredible encounter. 
During the morning, Captain Bouman brought an Easter Islander on board, together with his craft. 
This hapless creature seemed to be very glad to behold us and showed the greatest wonder at the build of our ship. 
He took special notice of the tautness of our spars, the stoutness of our rigging and running gear; the sails, the guns, which he felt all over with minute attention and with everything else that he saw. 
When the image of his own features was displayed before him in a mirror, he started suddenly back and then looked towards the back of the glass, apparently in the expectation of discovering there the cause of the apparition. 
After we had sufficiently beguiled ourselves with him and he with us, we started him off again in his canoe towards the shore. 
With this light-hearted encounter conceals a dark truth about Roggeveen's visit. 
In fact, when Roggeveen and his men went ashore, their visit would turn to tragedy. 
It's clear from both accounts that the Europeans were nervous when they stepped ashore. 
They had heard stories of violent encounters with indigenous people and it's worth noting that the novel Robinson Crusoe had been published only three years before, full of garish stories of cannibalism and murder. 
Despite their guns and cannons, it's clear that the islanders frightened them, and the natural curiosity and boldness of the Rapa Nui people seemed to make matters worse.
80:14    When the Dutchmen got ashore, the islanders pressed around them, grabbing at their hats and clothes, and even touching the guns they carried. 
It's not clear which Dutchman shot first, but the situation quickly spiraled out of control. 
The Europeans fired into the unarmed crowd of islanders. 
Their guns were flintlock pistols and rifles that would have sent up puffs of smoke, and the cries of people shot would have rang out, with the smell of gunpowder filling the air. 
Behrens recounts what happened next as he recognized a familiar face among the murdered islanders. 
Many of them were shot at this juncture, and among the slain lay the man who had been with us before of which we were much grieved. 
In order to obtain possession of the bodies, they congregated in great numbers, bringing with them presents of various kinds of fruits and vegetables in order that we might the more readily surrender to them their slain. 
The consternation of these people was by no means abated, even with their children's children in that place will, in times to come, be able to recount the story of it. 
We can assume that what Behrens said is true. 
The story of this violent encounter must have reverberated through the history of the Rapa Nui people. 
It would have destabilized their ancient beliefs and rocked their very sense of the world around them. 
Remember that Behrens mentions that the islanders didn't have any weapons at this point, that they only prayed to their gods for protection. 
Now imagine what would happen to this belief system when visitors arrived from the sea, killed multiple islanders with what must have appeared to be magic weapons. 
Then when these visitors walked around the island, even approaching the statues, and then sailed away unharmed. 
When you think about this encounter through that lens, it becomes a lot clearer why the Rapa Nui might have lost faith in their ancestors. 
But the sad truth is that the European bullets were not the deadliest legacy they left behind. 
The true killer of the Rapa Nui would have been something much smaller; invisible microbes, viruses, and bacteria to which the islanders' immune systems had never been exposed. 
Europe has always been a crossroads between many different peoples, sometimes separated by hundreds or even thousands of miles.
83:02    Europe's constant wars and exchange of trade spread localized diseases across the continent, and each year the Silk Road brought fresh shipments of disease from China and India along with silks and spices. 
This all resulted in Europeans becoming immune to a large variety of diseases, but although the diseases didn't affect them, they could still carry them. 
For populations that had not suffered the same exposure, these germs could be devastating. 
In pathology, this phenomenon is known as the virgin soil effect. 
It's not recorded what diseases may have been transmitted. 
In other parts of the uncontacted world, cholera, measles, diphtheria, and even the bubonic plague swept through populations.
83:54    By even the lowest estimates, indigenous populations were reduced by 80% right across the Americas. 
Four out of every five people died, and it's likely that in the even more isolated environment of Easter Island, the effects could have been even more devastating. 
On other better-observed Polynesian islands, the reduction in population after first contact was as much as 90%.
84:20    So, in the decades after the Dutch visit, we can imagine disease ravaging the helpless population of Rapa Nui. 
It's possible that the population of the island may have crashed from a height of around 3,000 to only a few hundred. 
The population may have only just recovered by the time 48 years later that the Spanish arrived and delivered a whole new dose of invisible death to the islanders. 
The Rapa Nui people wouldn't have been able to understand why this was happening to them. 
In fact, if you'd asked the Europeans of the time what caused these diseases, they wouldn't know either. 
They may have told you that they were caused by miasmas or bad night air, this being the prevailing theory at the time. 
As whole families of islanders died, the Rapa Nui must have believed that the ancestors they had so laboriously carved to protect the island had failed them. 
By the time the Spanish brought the second wave of disease and it began ravaging the population all over again, those looming monoliths on the coast may have begun to represent not protective spirits but the very specters of death themselves, and the islanders, one by one, began to bring them down.
85:44    Soon, these fallen giants would litter the landscape. 
Now, only those abandoned Moai half-buried in the runoff from the quarry would remain upright, and the age of Easter Island statues would come to an end. 
The loss of Easter Island's culture was an incalculable tragedy for our understanding of humanity. 
One of the reasons this is true is that Easter Island may have been one of the few places on earth where writing was independently invented. 
A kind of script called Rongorongo has been found on just a few dozen wooden objects and tablets that have survived from Rapa Nui. 
Many of them are heavily weathered, burned, or otherwise damaged, and they were all plundered by private collectors in the 19th century, now scattered in museums and private collections around the world.
86:42    Every modern attempt to decipher Rongorongo has failed and the script stands as one of the true mysteries of Easter Island. 
Many of the glyphs that make up the script are representations of things the islanders saw around them.
86:58    We can see the familiar shapes of sea turtles and birds, for instance. 
The legends of the islanders say that the original founder, the man they called Hotu Matua, had brought the wooden tablets with him when he landed on Easter Island. 
But this seems unlikely; there is no known tradition of writing anywhere else in Polynesia. 
So, it's thought that Rongorongo must have been an invention of the islanders themselves. 
It doesn't seem like literacy was ever widespread. 
In fact, early visitors to the island were told that reading and writing was a privilege of the ruling families and priests. 
Some have argued that Rongorongo must be a more modern invention, that the islanders may have seen Europeans reading and writing, thus inspiring them to create their own script. 
If this were the case, then the written language of Rongorongo would have emerged, flourished, and then fallen into oblivion all within a space of less than 100 years.
87:59    But I think one detail of the script makes me doubt this; that's the character that shows clearly and unambiguously the distinctive wine bottle shape of a Jubaea palm tree, a species that went extinct on the island before the year 1650, more than seventy years before first European contact. 
To my mind, this alone shows that Rongorongo was developed on the island during a time when giant palms still towered over its shores. 
In 1864, a French churchmen Eugene Eyraud arrived on the island and described seeing a vast number of these writing tablets, although it seemed to him that the islanders no longer valued them as repositories of knowledge. 
In every hut, one finds wooden tablets or sticks covered in several sorts of hieroglyphic characters. 
They are depictions of animals unknown on the island which the natives draw with sharp stones. 
Each figure has its own name, but the scant attention they pay to these tablets leads me to think that these characters, remnants of some primitive writing, are now for them a habitual practice which they keep without seeking its meaning. 
European visitors in the following decades reported seeing the islanders using these writing tablets as reels for their fishing lines and as tools for fire-starting. 
By this time, none of the islanders could agree on how to read the tablets. 
Whatever knowledge was held in the Rongorongo script, the destruction of the island's society had caused it to be lost.
89:43    If attempts at deciphering it continue to be unsuccessful, we may never know what the Rapa Nui people wrote down. 
This destruction occurred more than anything due to the final tragic stage of the collapse of Rapa Nui society. 
Once again, it's not because they cut down the trees.
90:15    By 1789, maps were being printed that showed exactly where Easter Island was.
90:23    These maps meant that anyone with a ship could now make their way there and for the remaining islanders, this would spell their doom. 
In the 19th century, the island became a common stop for ships that wanted to pick up food and supplies, and more than 50 recorded voyages are known to have stopped there. 
But the number of unrecorded visits may have been much higher and as time went by, people's reasons for visiting the island began to become more sinister. 
In 1805, a ship full of American seal hunters found themselves short-handed. 
In need of laborers, they made landfall on Easter Island and kidnapped 22 Rapa Nui people, forcing them to work on their ship and keeping them in shackles below deck. 
When the men were finally taken up on deck, every last one of them jumped overboard into the sea and swam below the surface so the sealers couldn't recapture them.
91:26    This would be only the beginning of increasingly organized slave-taking raids against the island. 
Soon, the Rapa Nui were understandably hostile to any foreigner who tried to land there. 
A Russian expedition was pelted with stones when they landed in 1816, and traffic to the South Pacific was only to increase as whaling activity drove the North Atlantic whale populations to the edge of extinction.
91:55    Now, more whalers ventured ever further into the South Pacific and it was common for these ship crews to kidnap Rapa Nui men and women as slaves. 
These slave raids reached their peak in the 1860s when large and well-equipped expeditions began arriving from Peru with weapons. 
These teams, known as black birders, would scour the whole island, searching through its caves and hollows, rounding up almost every single adult they could find. 
In total, these raids kidnapped over 1500 of the Rapa Nui people. 
Only a scattered bunch of survivors who had managed to hide were spared. 
With their work done, the sailors voyaged home to Peru and the kidnapped Rapa Nui people were put to work on plantations or as domestic servants. 
When news of these kidnappings got out, there was a public outcry and a campaign began to repatriate the kidnapped islanders, headed by a French bishop. 
The Peruvian government was reluctant at first, but it was ultimately forced by international pressure to comply. 
The islanders were rounded up and transported back to the home they had been stolen from. 
But this only led to further tragedy. 
Of the 1500 who had been taken, the vast majority had died in Peru, leaving less than a hundred remaining. 
A further 85 died due to the harsh conditions on the voyage back to Easter Island, leaving only about a dozen survivors who ever made it home. 
Of these, some were infected with smallpox and before long, this spread through the remaining population of the island. 
This devastating event would be the final death knell for the island's distinctive and beautiful culture. 
Among those taken as slaves were every single one of the priestly class, the only people on the planet who could read the Rongorongo script. 
The continuity of songs and folktales that had for centuries carried the folk memory of the people of Rapa Nui was lost. 
By 1866 there were just a hundred and eleven adult islanders living on Rapa Nui, 68 men and 43 women. 
Of these, only 36 ever had any offspring, meaning that the current indigenous population of the island is descended from only these 36 people. 
Two years later, in 1868, the HMS Topaze, a 51-gun British frigate of the Royal Navy, landed on Easter Island to find a devastated population. 
The islanders could no longer summon the energy even to throw stones at the arriving Europeans. 
The British searched the island until they found what they were looking for. 
It was the most beautiful example of a Moai ever carved.
95:06    This was one of the rare statues carved not from the soft volcanic tuff, but from hard basalt, meaning that its surface details and contours have been remarkably preserved. 
It must have been truly a labor of love for a team of ancient artists to carve this hard stone. 
The British put ropes around it and dragged it aboard their ship while the helpless Rapa Nui watched. 
When a British sailor asked one of the islanders what the name of the statue was, they replied that he was Hoa Hakananai'a. 
This translates to 'our stolen friend'. 
The statue was eventually presented to Queen Victoria and it was placed in the British Museum where it remains to this day despite repeated requests by the modern Rapa Nui for it to be returned. 
As a final death blow, Rapa Nui was annexed by Chile in 1888 and twelve years later, the whole island was bought to be used as a sheep ranch. 
Capitalism arrived on Easter Island.
96:20    The tiny population of remaining Rapa Nui were moved into the town of Hanga Roa on the west coast. 
They were ordered to build a nine-foot stone wall around the town, and were then told they were not allowed to go beyond this wall.
96:36    Virtually, the whole island was now off-limits to them. 
The only way for the Rapa Nui to survive was to work on the sheep ranch so that they could earn wages to buy food. 
But the only food they could buy was from a shop owned by their employer. 
They were effectively imprisoned laborers on their own island.
96:59    The island now became home to many thousands of sheep who grazed its slopes for more than 60 years. 
This, more than anything the Rapa Nui had done, destroyed the last remaining trees and stripped the island of its topsoil. 
One American visitor to the island, a company man named William Thompson, recounted seeing the ecological damage that the intensive sheep farming had done to the islands ecology. 
In other parts of the island may be seen in places and considerable numbers a hardwood tree called by the natives toromiro. 
These must have flourished well at one time, but are now all or nearly all dead and decaying by reason of being stripped of their bark by the flocks of sheep which roam at will all over the island. 
Now, the buried statues of Easter Island would stare out over the bleak and treeless landscape we've come to recognize, so different to the rich cultivated gardens of the Rapa Nui.
98:00    A clear picture of this collapse does begin to emerge and we can see that the mystery of Easter Island isn't much of a mystery at all. 
Rapa Nui wasn't the site of an ecological suicide as we've been led to believe, but the site of a genocide. 
Its unique and beautiful civilization did collapse but it did so after contact with the outside world and not before. 
The Easter Islanders didn't foolishly damage their environment and bring about their downfall. 
In fact, they made their island garden flourish. 
They built one of the most remarkable visual cultures in the world through ingenuity and hard work, and maintained peace on their island community. 
So when we reach for Easter Island as a fable or warning about our future, we should be very careful about what kind of fable we turn it into. 
As we move forward in facing the challenges of our own time, perhaps we should be asking not what warning we might take from the fate of Easter Island but what its people may have to teach us.
99:13    I want to end the episode by listening to a piece of music we've heard a few times already. 
It's an old piece of Rapa Nui folk music performed by students at the Toki School of Music and Arts in Rapa Nui, which aims to preserve the traditional culture of the Easter Islanders for the next generation. 
It's the song that was once sung over the carving of the great Moai statues and its rhythm comes from the striking together of two stones. 
As you listen, try to imagine what it must have been like for these islanders to watch their traditional way of life dissolve beneath the pressures of a cruel and unrelenting outside world. 
Imagine what it must have felt like to have your faith in the protective power of your ancestors shaken as disaster after disaster seems to wash in like a summer storm from the sea. 
Imagine how they must have felt standing on those grassy slopes and watching the sails of tall ships coming in over the horizon, as the Pacific wind blew over the rolling grassy slopes still scattered with the louring stone statues of a forgotten age.
100:54    Thank you for listening to The Fall of Civilizations Podcast. 
I'd like to thank my voice actors for this episode Jacob Rollinson, Jake Barrett-Mills, Annie Kelly, and Shem Jacobs. 
I'd love to hear your thoughts and responses on Twitter, so please come and tell me what you thought. 
You can follow me @PaulMMCooper.
101:15    If you'd like updates about the podcast, announcements about new episodes, as well as images, maps, and reading suggestions, you can follow the podcast @fall_of_
101:25    civ_pod with underscores separating the words. 
This is normally the part of the podcast when I ask you to support me and my work on Patreon, and I would like to give a heartfelt thank you to everybody who has subscribed to the podcast so far. 
But I wanted to give that time on this episode to a project that I find truly inspiring; that's the Toki School of Music and Arts on Easter Island who kindly agreed to record some music especially for this episode. 
Toki was set up after a successful crowdfunding campaign to create a fully sustainable music school on Rapa Nui where the island's children can learn the traditional songs of their ancestors and keep the culture of the island alive for future generations. 
While the bid to build the school was successful, it still needs funds to keep running to cover its costs and to pay its teachers, so if you think you can spare anything please head to Toki Rapa Nui.org. 
That's TOKI RAPA NUI.org to find out more and donate whatever you can to keep this unique and beautiful initiative alive.
102:41    For now, goodbye and thanks for listening.
    For now, goodbye and thanks for listening.

The Romance Languages?

www.youtube.com

0:00:00.000,0:00:04.431
ロマンス諸語

0:00:04.431,0:00:09.267
ロマンスの言葉についてよくある
ジョーク

0:00:14.883,0:00:17.698
カット
冗談はおしまい

0:00:18.911,0:00:22.618
LangFocusチャンネルへようこそ
ポールです

0:00:22.861,0:00:26.178
今日はロマンス諸語について

0:00:26.297,0:00:29.460
ロマンスの言葉ではなく
ロマンス諸語

0:00:29.460,0:00:31.962
なぜロマンス諸語を気にする必要が？

0:00:32.064,0:00:35.687
もっとも重要なロマンス諸語は
フランス語、スペイン語、イタリア語

0:00:35.687,0:00:37.374
ポルトガル語、ルーマニア語

0:00:37.374,0:00:41.735
ロマンス諸語はヨーロッパで最も広く話されている言語で

0:00:41.829,0:00:48.132
世界中の母語話者は8億人ほどだといわれています

0:00:48.231,0:00:49.613
だから気にする必要がある

0:00:49.735,0:00:55.528
これらはインドヨーロッパ語族の
イタリック語派に属する言語のグループです

0:00:55.528,0:00:59.470
イタリック語派は現在の
イタリア起源の諸言語です

0:00:59.603,0:01:01.920
イタリアの首都とえいば

0:01:02.146,0:01:04.350
そう、ローマですね

0:01:04.492,0:01:07.130
正解者への商品は

0:01:07.130,0:01:08.429
ありません

0:01:08.429,0:01:12.381
「イタリア」と「イタリック」
「ローマ」と「ロマンス」

0:01:12.486,0:01:13.626
関連がありそうですね

0:01:13.735,0:01:16.288
よくある質問は

0:01:16.288,0:01:18.597
「なぜロマンス諸語と呼ばれるのか？」

0:01:18.701,0:01:23.297
それは、これらがすべてラテン語から発展したもので

0:01:23.373,0:01:25.663
ラテン語はローマ人とローマ帝国の言語だったからです

0:01:25.735,0:01:28.777
ローマ帝国が西ヨーロッパ全体広るにつれて

0:01:28.777,0:01:33.000
ほとんどの住民はラテン語を
使うようになりました

0:01:33.102,0:01:36.445
ローマ帝国のラテン語には2つの形式があり

0:01:36.564,0:01:40.785
上流階級が使用する古典ラテン語と

0:01:40.904,0:01:45.974
庶民の一般的な話法「俗ラテン語」です

0:01:46.110,0:01:50.806
ローマ帝国の庶民の間で広まった
ラテン語のことを「俗ラテン語」と呼んでいました

0:01:51.000,0:01:53.296
なぜ「俗」とついているかというと

0:01:53.398,0:01:58.566
このxxxxxx野郎xxxxxx

0:01:58.566,0:02:02.496
というのは冗談で「俗」とは単に一般的
口語的という意味

0:02:02.742,0:02:10.540
時代が下って俗ラテン語は
帝国内で様々な話し言葉に別々に進化しました

0:02:10.744,0:02:15.000
ローマ帝国の崩壊後さらに分岐し

0:02:15.000,0:02:17.510
最終的は別々の言語に進化しました

0:02:17.732,0:02:24.561
当時はテレビもラジオも統一的な
学校教育もありませんでした

0:02:24.616,0:02:29.166
ラテン語の標準形式は定まらず
話し方はいとも簡単に分岐しました

0:02:29.267,0:02:35.079
ロマンス諸語は方言の連続体なので
言語数を実際に数えることはできません

0:02:35.201,0:02:40.869
ポルトガルからイタリアへ
南フランスから北フランスへ
線を引くとすると

0:02:41.012,0:02:44.572
隣接する村同士はお互いを理解
できますが

0:02:44.871,0:02:48.720
しかしその線に沿ってさらに移動すると

0:02:48.720,0:02:52.246
方言差がはげしくなりコミュニケーション
が難しくなります

0:02:52.310,0:02:55.120
なので1つの言語がどこで終わり
もう1つの言語がどこから始まったかを

0:02:55.211,0:02:56.481
判断するのは困難でした

0:02:56.559,0:03:00.159
しかし現代の国民国家が生まれ
自由教育が導入されると

0:03:00.237,0:03:04.627
地方の方言のなかから標準的な
国語が選ばれるようになります

0:03:04.690,0:03:09.399
フランスだとパリ方言、スペインだとカスティーリャ方言ですね

0:03:09.511,0:03:15.797
こうして多くの古い方言は
国語や地域言語に取り込まれていきました

0:03:15.950,0:03:20.975
今日の主なロマンス諸語は
スペイン語4億1000万人

0:03:21.134,0:03:26.886
ポルトガル語2億1600万人
フランス語7500万人

0:03:27.000,0:03:33.111
イタリア語6000万人
ルーマニア語2500万人

0:03:33.355,0:03:37.014
400万人の母語話者がいる
カタロニア語も加えておきましょう

0:03:37.434,0:03:40.945
カタロニア語はスペインのカタルーニャ
地方で話されている言語です

0:03:41.036,0:03:47.576
EUの人口の42%、2億1000万人がロマンス
諸語を話します

0:03:47.673,0:03:52.032
これはロマンス諸語を話す人の
総数の26%にすぎません

0:03:52.149,0:03:53.268
その他の人々はどこに

0:03:53.434,0:03:56.817
フランス、スペイン、ポルトガルは
世界を植民地化したとき

0:03:56.817,0:03:59.881
自分たちの言語も広めました

0:04:00.000,0:04:05.330
今日スペイン語は西半球の
3億7700万人によって話されています

0:04:05.330,0:04:08.065
19カ国の公用語です

0:04:10.504,0:04:14.275
西半球の言語はスペイン語だけ
ではありません

0:04:14.365,0:04:18.725
ブラジルでは2億260万人がポルトガル語
を話しています

0:04:18.783,0:04:24.233
ポルトガル語は南米ではブラジルでしか
話されていませんが話者は多い

0:04:24.422,0:04:27.380
ポルトガル語はアフリカの5カ国
でも話されています

0:04:27.501,0:04:31.530
マカオでも公用語ですがもうあまり
使われていません

0:04:31.668,0:04:35.683
かつてポルトガル語が公用語だった
東ティモールでも使われています

0:04:35.835,0:04:39.546
東ティモールでは近年ポルトガル語が
公用語に返り咲いた

0:04:39.546,0:04:44.649
カナダでは770万人がフランス語話者

0:04:44.710,0:04:46.721
カリブ海の島々では1000万人

0:04:46.721,0:04:50.428
アフリカでは
第二言語およびリンガフランカとして

0:04:50.503,0:04:55.646
31カ国で1億1500万人が話しています

0:04:55.812,0:05:00.718
フランス語は
ベルギーやスイスでも話されています

0:05:00.903,0:05:02.041
ルクセンブルグ、モナコでも話されています！

0:05:02.149,0:05:04.691
フランス、スペイン、ポルトガルと異なり

0:05:04.691,0:05:06.690
イタリアは植民地競争に出遅れ

0:05:06.690,0:05:10.296
国外ではイタリア語はあまり
広がりませんでした

0:05:10.296,0:05:13.651
かつてはリビアとソマリアでも話されていましたが

0:05:13.651,0:05:16.753
今では一握りの高齢者が話しているにすぎません

0:05:16.753,0:05:23.825
イタリア語はイタリア本国の他
サンマリノ、バチカン、モナコでも話されています

0:05:23.878,0:05:30.896
さらにクロアチア、スロベニア、アルバニア、マルタなど
近隣諸国で第二言語として広く話されています

0:05:32.125,0:05:35.866
標準イタリア語はトスカーナ方言に
基づいていますが

0:05:36.000,0:05:38.882
イタリアには他にも多く種類の
ロマンス系話し言葉があり

0:05:38.882,0:05:41.456
いくつかは独自の言語と見なせます

0:05:41.551,0:05:47.763
サルデーニャ島では約100万人の
人々がサルデーニャ語を話します

0:05:47.846,0:05:52.023
しかし最近では若い世代はサルデーニャ語をあまり話さないようです

0:05:52.119,0:05:55.236
代わりに彼らはサルデーニャ語と標準イタリア語の混合したことばを身につけます

0:05:55.328,0:05:59.091
これは標準イタリア語の地域方言となっています

0:05:59.193,0:06:02.866
もうひとつやや衰退した言語に
オック語があります

0:06:03.000,0:06:08.009
オック語は、イタリア北部、フランス南部
スペインの一部で話されています

0:06:08.066,0:06:11.811
サルデーニャ語と同様
オック語は主に高齢者が使用します

0:06:11.929,0:06:15.398
若い人たちも理解はできますが
あまり話したがらないようです

0:06:15.501,0:06:19.916
オック語はスペインのカタロニア語と
方言連続体を形成します

0:06:20.023,0:06:23.488
つまりカタロニア語話者とオック語話者は

0:06:23.606,0:06:26.922
異なる言語を話しているにもかかわらず

0:06:27.000,0:06:28.185
お互いを理解できるのです

0:06:28.297,0:06:30.000
衰退しつつあるオック語とは異なり

0:06:30.139,0:06:34.300
カタロニア語はスペインの
カタルーニャ地方で広く使われています

0:06:34.401,0:06:38.579
400万人の母語話者と
500万人の第二言語話者がいます

0:06:38.721,0:06:45.217
この他カスティーリャ語（標準スペイン語）に加え
共同公用語を規定している地域があります

0:06:45.351,0:06:48.969
これらの地域の言語はフランスや
イタリアの地域言語にくらべて

0:06:49.004,0:06:51.925
若い世代の間でも強力に維持されています

0:06:51.925,0:06:54.873
「ロマンス諸語は相互に理解できるか？」

0:06:54.929,0:06:57.680
ロマンス諸語の話者がこの動画を
ご覧になっていたら

0:06:57.763,0:07:00.240
コメントしてください

0:07:00.344,0:07:03.704
ほかのロマンス諸語が話すことを
あなたは理解できますか

0:07:03.704,0:07:04.539
教えて下さい

0:07:04.635,0:07:07.563
一般的な答えはイエスとノーの両方

0:07:07.649,0:07:12.402
だいたい理解できるけれども
全部は無理といったところ

0:07:12.622,0:07:15.574
意思疎通が簡単な場合もあります

0:07:15.660,0:07:21.119
相互理解の程度が最も高いのは
スペイン語とポルトガル語です

0:07:21.136,0:07:24.586
スペイン語とイタリア語
イタリア語とルーマニア語も簡単

0:07:24.836,0:07:28.074
しかし理解が一方向である場合
が多いようです

0:07:28.095,0:07:32.388
ポルトガル語話者はスペイン語が
よくわかりますが

0:07:32.403,0:07:35.054
スペイン語話者はポルトガル語を
よく理解できません

0:07:35.157,0:07:37.198
音韻構造が複雑なためです

0:07:38.401,0:07:41.739
「ロマンス諸語を1つ学べば
他のロマンス言語を学ぶのに役立ちますか？」

0:07:41.865,0:07:43.120
答えはイエス

0:07:43.247,0:07:47.463
自動的チョー超簡単というわけでは
ありませんが

0:07:47.463,0:07:51.788
いずれもラテン語をルーツとし
語彙の多くもラテン語からきています

0:07:51.965,0:07:55.765
文法構造もラテン語に基づいているからです

0:07:55.835,0:07:58.415
あなたが言語を学ぶのが好きで

0:07:58.415,0:08:01.707
世界中の多くの場所で使用できる
言語を身に着けたければ

0:08:01.825,0:08:05.031
主要なロマンス諸語をひとつ選ぶとよいでしょう

0:08:05.101,0:08:07.461
やってみましょう
なにせロマンス諸語は

0:08:07.501,0:08:09.346
「愛の言葉」ですから

0:08:09.346,0:08:12.589
ご覧いただきありがとうございます
コメントをお願いします

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特にあなたがロマンス諸語話者であれば

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あなたの経験を教えてください

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それではhave a good day

Johannes Gutenberg and the Printing Press

www.youtube.com

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しかし中世のほとんどの人にとっては

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縁のないインテリ階級の話

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どのみち彼らは読み書きできなかった

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中世ヨーロッパの修道院
本は手書きで書き写されていた

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僧侶はその仕事に何年も費やした

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1450年にある発明が世界を変えた

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ドイツのマインツで
ヨハネス・グーテンベルクが活版印刷技術を発明した

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これで低コストで大量の本を複製できるようになった

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この技術基盤はその後の数世紀の

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知的、政治的、宗教的な変革の基盤ともなった

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ヨハネスグーテンベルク
印刷機を発明した男

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1400年頃後にグーテンベルクとして
知られることになるヨハネス・ゲンスフライシュが生まれる

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父親は裕福な商人

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ヨハネスはマインツの修道院学校に通った

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わかっていることはそれくらい

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その後の足取りはしばらく途絶える

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1434年
グーテンベルクはフランスのストラスブールに住んでいた

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ここでグーテンベルクは巡礼者の
ための鏡を製造する工場を設立

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信者の間で非常に人気があった

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巡礼者が訪れる寺院や遺構から発せられる

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霊気をつかまえるという触れ込みの鏡

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おいしい商売だった

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奉納物を扱う商売が盛んに行われていた

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特に人気があったのは聖人を描いた木版画

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木版画は原始的な印刷技術だが

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中世初期にようやくヨーロッパに伝来

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主に聖人の肖像や聖書の普及に役立った

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しかしページ全体の木版を彫る には時間がかかる

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まず手書きでページの鏡像を版木に書いて

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文字をひとつひとつ彫り出さねばならない

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最後に版木にインクを塗ってその上に紙を置き

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骨角器で強くこすってインクを吸収させる

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15世紀初頭までに
これらの版画や抜き刷りが市場に出回っていた

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ときにはページをまとめたものが本に綴じられた

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本の取引がふえれば写本に対する需要も増える

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聖書の写本はもはや修道院の独占的物ではなく

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庶民の書記にとってよい商売だった

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マインツにはじめて大学がつくられ
本の大需要を生み出した

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図書館がつくられ
知識へのアクセスが容易になった

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本はより安くより早く入手できる
必要があったが、それだけではなく

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特に研究者は本の中の記述がすべて
同じであることを求めた

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新しい生産技術が探し求められた

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グーテンベルクもその方法をさがしていた

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1446年グーテンベルクはマインツに戻る

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事業を進めるための強力な資金
援助をうけることができた

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すばらしい発案が事業を大きく前進させる

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書かれた文をばらばらに切り出し

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文字、記号、合字（æ）など

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次に組版を作り
単、語、行、ページへと組み上げる

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文字は鋳造された活字で
組み合わせによってなんども使い回せた

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活字の作り方は

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金属の棒の先に反転した文字を彫り込む

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これを柔らかい銅に押し込み
文字をかたどった穴を作る

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これはマトリックス（母型）と呼ばれ
鉛からつくる活字の型になる

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必要な活字を手早く大量に作るために

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グーテンベルクはさらなる画期的な技術を開発

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小型の鋳造器だ

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これは長方形のチャネル（溝）で構成されていて

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底にマトリックスをはめ込み
上から溶けた鉛を流し込む

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装置を分解すれば
鉛鋳造された活字が出来上がる

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マトリックスは何度でも使えるので

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同じ型の活字がいくつでも作れる

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植字工がそれを一列に並べてゆき

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版（はん）の枠内でタテヨコを組み合わせて
好みのレイアウトに整えると

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印刷すべきページの鏡像ができあがる

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版にインクが塗り込まれる

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グーテンベルクは黒色顔料のニスに
卵の白身を混ぜたものを使った

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印刷が始まる

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グーテンベルクは特製プレス機を使ったが

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これは伝統的なワイン絞り機の原理を応用したものだ

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最初の印刷物は公文書

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教皇の勅書

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そして文法書

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しかしすぐに大仕事に取り掛かる

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ラテン語の聖書だ

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彼はこのプロジェクトのために
10万個以上の活字を鋳造

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２年以上の歳月をかけて植字工、印刷工とともに

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初版180冊の聖書を作った

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文字はブラックレター書体または
ゴシック書体が使われた

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当時の手書き文字のデザインだ

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最後に装飾師が色文字と装飾を施す

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世界一美しいこの聖書は

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活字印刷が審美的にも
手書きの写本に劣らないこと証明した

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初版は即完売

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人々はグーテンベルクの仕事に感心した

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これほど大判の本を見たのは初めてだった

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しかもすべて同じコピー

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一方、手書き文字は権威の象徴になった

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この革命的な技術の知識はあっという間に広がった

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間もなくケルン、バンブルク、バーゼルに
最初の印刷所ができる

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ヴェネツィアの出版業者アルドゥス・マヌティウスは

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古典作家の作品を出版

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彼の顧客はヨーロッパ中の人文知識人エリート

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マヌティウスは当時の最も才能ある印刷職人を雇用

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彼らが開発した「アンティグア書体」は
あっという間にヨーロッパを席巻

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グーテンベルクの発明から20年
新技術の基盤が確立された

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数千のタイトルが販売され
数千のエディションを重ねた

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本は今や一般の人々にも手頃な価格になった

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社会の識字率が上昇し
潜在的な読者数も増加した

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グーテンベルクの最大の崇拝者の１人が

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宗教改革のマルティン・ルターだった

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新しい印刷技術はルターに
輝かしくも大胆なアイデアを授けた

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庶民は聖書のことばを理解するのに
もはや司祭を必要としなくなった

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自分で読み、自分で決めることができるのだ

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なにが啓示を受けた真理で
なにが教会の勝手な解釈か、を

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ルターはドイツ語訳聖書を50万部以上印刷

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当時としては膨大な数だ

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彼はプロテスタントのメッセージを広めるために

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数十万枚のリーフレットを配布した

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この新しいメディアはルターだけでなく

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王、自由都市の市民たち、そして皇帝すらも利用した

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今でいうチラシが
ニュースメディアとして登場

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1524年に、特異な惑星直列現象が予言されると

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危機を煽るチラシが国内に乱れ飛び

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ノアの洪水の再来と騒ぎ立てた

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最初の日刊紙は1650年にライプツィヒで誕生

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Einkommende Zeitungen
つまり「ニュース速報」というタイトルで

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週6日発行された

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しかし新聞が大々的に普及するには

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19世紀の蒸気機関式輪転印刷機の
登場を待たねばならない

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オフセット印刷は
印刷技術を根底から変革した

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印刷要素と非印刷要素は
単一の連続した表面の一部になる

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まず印刷するページを露光して
薄い印刷版に転写

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次に非印刷領域がインクを吸収しないように
プレートを水で湿らせる

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次に印刷インクが塗布されれる

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これはベトっとした物質で
光にさらされた領域に付着する

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オフセット技法では
インクが版から紙に直接転写されるのではなく

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一旦ゴムローラーに転写される段階があり

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それから紙に印刷される

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これで高速の印刷が可能になる
紙は低品質でも構わない

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オフセットは今日では最も一般的な印刷技法で

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現代における技術開発は目覚ましいが

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ヨハネス・グーテンベルクこそが
現代メディア世界の基礎を築いたのだ

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彼の発明は人類史上
最もっとも重要なものの１つとされている

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グーテンベルク自身は
この発明で財をなしたわけではなかった

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聖書印刷事業は他人の手に渡り

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支援者からの貸付回収をめぐる法廷闘争に巻き込まれ

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印刷機だけでなく
印刷済み聖書もすべて失った

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まもなくマインツは敵国軍に占領され

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グーテンベルクは亡命を余儀なくされる

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３年後に赦免されて帰国
新しい大司教に雇用される

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1468年2月3日、ヨハネスグーテンベルク死去

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マインツのフランシスコ会教会に埋葬された

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しかし彼の発明した活版印刷は

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世界を永遠に変えたのだ